{"zones":[{"id":"boucle-du-niger","nom":"The Niger Bend","periode":[1300,1600],"centre":[-4.2,15.6],"zoom":5.15,"accroche":"Where West Africa's greatest river brushes the Sahara: three centuries of empires, caravans and scholars."},{"id":"kouch","nom":"Kush, kingdom of the Middle Nile","periode":[-1750,-593],"centre":[31.6,23.5],"zoom":4.3,"accroche":"On the Nile, in what is now northern Sudan, an African kingdom rivals Egypt for a thousand years, then rules it."},{"id":"aksoum","nom":"Aksum, the kingdom of the Red Sea","periode":[-700,702],"centre":[40.6,16.0],"zoom":4.6,"accroche":"On the Tigray highlands, an African kingdom draws its wealth from the Red Sea: it strikes gold, raises giant stelae, becomes Christian and crosses the sea to Yemen."}],"territoires":[{"id":"mali","nom":"Mali Empire","couleur":"#d9643a","plein":[1300,1400],"declin":[1400,1500],"voix":10,"note":"Extent at its height (around 1325 to 1360), agreed by 10 independent maps. After 1400 the empire shrinks and the outline fades.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"songhai","nom":"Songhai Empire","couleur":"#3fb7a6","naissance":[1464,1493],"plein":[1493,1591],"voix":9,"note":"Extent at its height (around 1500 to 1591), agreed by 9 independent maps. Between 1464 and 1493 the empire is still forming, so the outline is paler.","region":"boucle-du-niger"}],"points":[{"id":"tombouctou","nom":"Timbuktu","lonlat":[-3.0,16.77],"photo":"tombouctou_rue","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"A nomad camp that grew into one of the great cities of learning in the Muslim world, where the desert meets the river.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655 (fondation par des Touaregs vers 1100)","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Tombouctou (inscrit en 1988)","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}],"histoires":[{"id":"savoir","titre":"City of learning","periode":"14th to 16th century","photo":"manuscrits","type_image":"original document","confiance":"A","accroche":"Scholars from the Sahel and the Maghreb teach law, grammar and astronomy here. Books are a prized commodity.","sources":[{"ref":"Léon l'Africain, Description de l'Afrique, 1550 (commerce des livres à Tombouctou)","provenance":"traveller (born in Granada, raised in Fez)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"Elias N. Saad, Social History of Timbuktu, Cambridge University Press, 1983","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"enfants":[{"id":"djingareyber","titre":"Djinguereber, the great mosque","periode":"around 1325","photo":"djingareyber","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"B","accroche":"Built when Mansa Musa came back from his pilgrimage. Tradition credits it to Abu Ishaq es-Saheli, an Andalusian poet and architect he met in Mecca.","texte":"The Djinguereber mosque is built of mud brick and wood, with timbers jutting from the walls that double as scaffolding for upkeep. The Timbuktu chronicles date its founding to around 1325, on Mansa Musa's return. The credit to es-Saheli comes from tradition; Ibn Khaldun only confirms that es-Saheli built an audience hall for Mansa Musa. The mosque has been enlarged and rebuilt several times, notably in the 16th century by the qadi al-Aqib. It is part of the Timbuktu site, listed as World Heritage in 1988.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar, fin du XIVe siècle","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Tombouctou","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"sankore","titre":"Sankore, the scholars' quarter","periode":"15th and 16th centuries","photo":"sankore","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"The city's leading scholars teach around the Sankore mosque. Not \"the world's first university\", but one of the great centres of learning of its day.","texte":"Sankore had no university building and awarded no institutional degree. Masters taught at home or in the mosques, and students went from master to master to earn a licence to teach a given book (the ijaza). Scholarly families such as the Aqit supplied qadis and imams for generations. The most famous of these scholars, Ahmed Baba (1556 to 1627), left many works. You often read that Sankore was the world's first university: that is a slogan. Al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, founded in 859, is usually cited as the oldest teaching institution still running, and the word \"university\" does not mean the same thing everywhere.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Elias N. Saad, Social History of Timbuktu, 1983","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"\"Sankore, the world's first university\"","confiance":"D"}},{"id":"manuscrits","titre":"The manuscripts","periode":"13th to 20th century","photo":"manuscrits","type_image":"original document","confiance":"A","accroche":"Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts, kept by the city's families, on law, theology, astronomy, medicine and history.","texte":"Most of Timbuktu's libraries are family libraries: manuscripts are handed down from one generation to the next. The Ahmed Baba Institute, set up by the Malian state in 1973, keeps and studies part of them. When armed groups occupied the city in 2012 and 2013, librarians and families secretly moved much of the collections to Bamako; several thousand manuscripts were still burned at the Institute. The total number of manuscripts in the region is an estimate, and the figures vary from source to source.","sources":[{"ref":"UNESCO, rapports sur le patrimoine de Tombouctou, 2013","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Institut des hautes études et de recherche islamique Ahmed Baba (Tombouctou)","provenance":"African institution (Mali)","famille":"africaine"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"The total number of manuscripts","confiance":"C"}}]},{"id":"port","titre":"The desert port","periode":"14th to 16th century","photo":"caravane_sel","type_image":"original document (postcard, around 1905)","confiance":"A","accroche":"Here Saharan salt meets gold from the south. Camels come in from the north, canoes from the Niger through the port of Kabara.","sources":[{"ref":"Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen Âge, IFAN, 1961","provenance":"academic (IFAN, Dakar)","famille":"universitaire"}],"enfants":[{"id":"sel-or","titre":"Salt for gold","periode":"14th to 16th century","photo":"sel_taoudenni","type_image":"museum object (salt slab from Taoudenni, musée du quai Branly)","confiance":"A","accroche":"Salt is scarce in the south and costly. Gold from the mines of Bambuk, Bure and the Akan lands travels north.","texte":"Salt is cut into slabs in the Saharan mines, first at Taghaza and later at Taoudenni, and carried by caravan down to Timbuktu. From there it heads south by river and through the markets. In the other direction, gold from the southern goldfields crosses the Sahara to the Maghreb and Egypt, then the Mediterranean. Timbuktu takes its share of this trade, and that is where its wealth comes from.","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355 (Taghaza et le commerce du sel)","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen Âge, 1961","provenance":"academic (IFAN, Dakar)","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"kabara","titre":"Kabara and the river","periode":"14th to 16th century","confiance":"A","accroche":"Timbuktu is not on the Niger itself: its port, Kabara, lies a few kilometres away. Canoes link the city to Djenné, upstream.","texte":"The river is the great highway of the Sahel: it carries grain, fish and goods between Djenné and Timbuktu, and on to Gao. At high water, channels bring boats closer to the city. Control of this waterway is at stake for the Mali and then the Songhai empires, which both keep fleets on it.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen Âge, 1961","provenance":"academic (IFAN, Dakar)","famille":"universitaire"}],"photo":"niger_gao","type_image":"photograph from 1997 (the Niger between Gao and Timbuktu)"}]},{"id":"1591","titre":"1591: the Moroccan army","periode":"1591 to 1608","photo":"manuscrits","type_image":"original document","confiance":"A","accroche":"After the defeat at Tondibi, Sultan al-Mansur's troops occupy Timbuktu. In 1593 scholars are arrested and deported to Marrakesh, Ahmed Baba among them.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Brill, 1999 (traduction annotée du Tarikh es-Soudan)","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"enfants":[{"id":"ahmed-baba","titre":"Ahmed Baba in exile","periode":"1593 to 1608","confiance":"A","accroche":"Taken across the desert in chains, Timbuktu's greatest scholar keeps teaching in Marrakesh. He only returns home in 1608.","texte":"Ahmed Baba belongs to the Aqit family. Arrested with other scholars suspected of resisting the occupation, he is deported to Morocco. In Marrakesh he teaches and writes, and his reputation is such that Moroccan scholars come to hear him. Allowed to go home, he returns to Timbuktu in 1608. The institute that now keeps the city's manuscripts bears his name.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"image_a_generer":"tombouctou01-ahmed-baba-exil","photo":"ia-tombouctou01-ahmed-baba-exil","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources"}]}],"local":"Tumbutu","type":"savoir","existence":{"debut":1100,"fin":null,"periode":"founded c. 1100","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655 (fondation par des Touaregs vers 1100)","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"}]},"etats":[{"de":1100,"a":1325,"etat":"naissance","importance":1,"role":"A Tuareg camp growing into a market by the river.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1325,"a":1433,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A city of the Mali Empire, a place of trade and learning.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1433,"a":1468,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A city under Tuareg rule.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1468,"a":1591,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The great city of learning and trade of the Songhay Empire.","confiance":"A"},{"de":1591,"a":null,"etat":"declin","importance":2,"role":"A city occupied by the Moroccan army and stripped of its scholars.","confiance":"A"}],"jalons":[{"annee":1100,"titre":"Founded by Tuareg herders","confiance":"B"},{"annee":1325,"titre":"Djinguereber is founded","confiance":"B","evenement":"djingareyber-1325"},{"annee":1433,"titre":"The Tuareg take the city","confiance":"B"},{"annee":1468,"titre":"Sonni Ali takes Timbuktu","confiance":"A","evenement":"sonni-ali-tombouctou-1468"},{"annee":1591,"titre":"Moroccan occupation","confiance":"A","evenement":"tondibi-1591"},{"annee":1593,"titre":"Ahmed Baba deported to Marrakesh","confiance":"A","evenement":"ahmed-baba-1593"},{"annee":1988,"titre":"Inscribed as a World Heritage Site","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["mansa-musa","es-saheli","sonni-ali","ahmed-baba","djouder","ibn-battuta"],"evenements":["djingareyber-1325","sonni-ali-tombouctou-1468","tondibi-1591","ahmed-baba-1593"],"parcours":["pelerinage"],"lieux":[{"id":"djenne","lien":"Canoes linked Djenné to Timbuktu, carrying gold and grain from the south up the river."},{"id":"taghaza","lien":"Salt from Taghaza reached Timbuktu by caravan."},{"id":"walata","lien":"Timbuktu gradually took over from Walata as the end point of the desert crossing."}]},"a_venir":[{"titre":"The Arma, after the conquest","periode":"17th and 18th centuries","accroche":"The descendants of the Moroccan soldiers, the Arma, ruled Timbuktu and the river for nearly two centuries.","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Elias N. Saad, Social History of Timbuktu, Cambridge University Press, 1983","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Brill, 1999 (traduction annotée du Tarikh es-Soudan)","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]}],"a_verifier":"Dates de l'entrée dans le Mali (1325) et de la prise touarègue (1433) à confirmer dans Saad 1983 ou Hunwick 1999.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"niani","nom":"Niani","lonlat":[-8.38,11.38],"photo":"atlas_catalan","type_image":"original document (Catalan Atlas, 1375)","confiance":"C","accroche":"The capital of Mali. Arabic texts describe it, but nobody knows exactly where it stood: Niani, in Guinea, is the most often cited candidate.","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"}],"histoires":[{"id":"capitale","titre":"Where was the capital?","periode":"13th and 14th centuries","confiance":"C","accroche":"Niani has been excavated, but other historians think the capital lay elsewhere, or moved over time.","texte":"Ibn Battuta stayed in the capital of Mali in 1352 without giving its exact position. Polish and Guinean excavations at Niani in the 1960s and 1970s uncovered a sizeable medieval town. But the dates and the texts do not quite match, and other sites along the Niger have been put forward. The atlas therefore places the capital at Niani with confidence C: plausible, with no decisive proof.","sources":[{"ref":"W. Filipowiak, Études archéologiques sur la capitale médiévale du Mali, Szczecin, 1979","provenance":"academic (archaeology)","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"D. C. Conrad, « A Town Called Dakajalan », Journal of African History, 1994","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"image_a_generer":"niani01-capitale-incertaine"},{"id":"pelerinage","titre":"Mansa Musa's pilgrimage","periode":"1324 and 1325","photo":"atlas_catalan","type_image":"original document (Catalan Atlas, 1375)","confiance":"A","parcours":"pelerinage","accroche":"Mansa Musa crosses the Sahara with a vast retinue and so much gold that in Cairo, according to al-Umari, the metal loses value for years.","sources":[{"ref":"al-Umari, Masalik al-absar, vers 1340","provenance":"Arab chronicler (Cairo)","famille":"arabe"}],"enfants":[{"id":"caire","titre":"In Cairo, 1324","periode":"July 1324","confiance":"A","accroche":"Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad receives the king of Mali. His gifts and purchases are so lavish that gold is still cheaper in Cairo a dozen years later.","texte":"Al-Umari writes in Cairo around 1340 and questions people who saw Mansa Musa pass through. He reports that the king and his retinue gave away and spent so much gold that its price had fallen and had not yet recovered when he was writing. The figures for the retinue (thousands of people, dozens of camels laden with gold) vary from author to author and should be read as orders of magnitude.","sources":[{"ref":"al-Umari, Masalik al-absar, vers 1340","provenance":"Arab chronicler (Cairo)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"N. Levtzion et J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, 1981","provenance":"academic (source translations)","famille":"universitaire"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"The size of the retinue and the amount of gold","confiance":"C"},"photo":"caire_nasir","type_image":"present-day photograph (al-Nasir Muhammad mosque, Cairo Citadel, 1318 to 1335)"},{"id":"atlas-catalan","titre":"The gold king of the Catalan Atlas","periode":"1375","photo":"atlas_catalan","type_image":"original document (Catalan Atlas, BnF)","confiance":"A","accroche":"Fifty years later, a workshop in Majorca draws the king of Mali on his throne, a gold nugget in his hand. Word of the pilgrimage has travelled around the Mediterranean.","texte":"The Catalan Atlas, credited to the workshop of Abraham Cresques and kept at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, places south of the Sahara a crowned ruler called \"Musse Melly\", lord of the Black people of Guinea. It is one of the first European images of a West African king. It shows what Europe remembered of Mansa Musa: gold.","sources":[{"ref":"Atlas catalan, 1375, Bibliothèque nationale de France","provenance":"European document (Majorca)","famille":"europeenne"}]},{"id":"retour","titre":"What the journey brought back","periode":"1325","confiance":"B","accroche":"Mansa Musa comes home with scholars, books and an architect. According to the chronicles, the mosques of Timbuktu and Gao date from this return.","texte":"The pilgrimage is also a political move: it makes Mali known across the Muslim world and brings scholars and skills back to the Sahel. The Timbuktu chronicles link the building of the Djinguereber mosque to this return. Mali's capture of Gao is also tied to this period, but its exact date is still debated.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"}],"image_a_generer":"mm06-retour-savants"}]},{"id":"soundiata","titre":"Sundiata and the birth of the empire","periode":"around 1235","confiance":"B","accroche":"Around 1235, Sundiata Keita defeats Sumaoro Kante at Kirina. The epic that griots still sing tells of this victory and the birth of Mali.","texte":"Sundiata's story comes to us mainly through oral tradition, handed down by Manding griots and written down in the 20th century, notably by Djibril Tamsir Niane in 1960. In the 14th century Ibn Khaldun mentions a king called Mari Djata, who matches Sundiata. The date 1235 is a historians' reconstruction: oral tradition does not count in years, it tells of generations.","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Soundjata ou l'épopée mandingue, 1960 (d'après le griot Mamadou Kouyaté)","provenance":"African oral tradition","famille":"orale"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"}],"image_a_generer":"niani02-soundiata-epopee","photo":"ia-niani02-soundiata-epopee","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources"}],"type":"ville","existence":{"debut":1235,"fin":null,"periode":"capital of Mali in the 13th and 14th centuries, location disputed","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"}]},"etats":[{"de":1235,"a":1400,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The capital of the Mali Empire, if this is indeed where it stood.","confiance":"C"},{"de":1400,"a":null,"etat":"declin","importance":1,"role":"The heart of a Mali losing its northern provinces.","confiance":"C"}],"jalons":[{"annee":1235,"titre":"Sundiata wins at Kirina","confiance":"C"},{"annee":1324,"titre":"Mansa Musa sets off for Mecca","confiance":"A","evenement":"pelerinage-1324"},{"annee":1352,"titre":"Ibn Battuta at the court of Mali","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["soundiata","mansa-musa","ibn-battuta"],"evenements":["pelerinage-1324"],"parcours":["pelerinage"],"lieux":[{"id":"walata","lien":"For travellers coming from the Sahara, Walata was the gateway to Mali."}]},"a_venir":[{"titre":"Mali after the great mansas","periode":"15th and 16th centuries","accroche":"The empire lost the north to the Tuareg and the Songhay, but survived, smaller, in the west.","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"}]}],"region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"djenne","nom":"Djenné","lonlat":[-4.55,13.91],"photo":"djenne","type_image":"present-day photograph (mosque rebuilt in 1907)","confiance":"A","accroche":"One of the oldest cities in West Africa, linked to Timbuktu by the river. Its great mosque is the largest mud-brick building in the world.","sources":[{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Villes anciennes de Djenné (inscrites en 1988)","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}],"histoires":[{"id":"djenne-djeno","titre":"Djenné-Djeno, the earlier city","periode":"3rd century BC to 14th century","confiance":"A","accroche":"Three kilometres from Djenné, archaeologists found a town lived in from the 3rd century BC, long before the great empires.","texte":"Excavations led from 1977 by Susan and Roderick McIntosh showed that a large settlement stood at Djenné-Djeno centuries before Islam and northern traders arrived. It was abandoned in the 14th century in favour of the present town. The discovery changed how West African cities were understood: they were not born of the trans-Saharan trade, they were there before it.","sources":[{"ref":"S. K. McIntosh et R. J. McIntosh, fouilles de Djenné-Djeno, 1977 et 1981","provenance":"academic (archaeology)","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Villes anciennes de Djenné","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}],"photo":"djenne_terre_cuite","type_image":"museum object (terracotta from the Inland Niger Delta, 13th century, Metropolitan Museum)"},{"id":"mosquee-djenne","titre":"The great mosque","periode":"13th century and 1907","photo":"djenne","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"The present building dates from 1907. Every year the townspeople replaster it with mud during a great communal festival.","texte":"According to the tradition recorded in the chronicles, the first mosque was built by King Koy Konboro after he converted to Islam, in the 13th century. The present building was rebuilt in 1907 by the town's masons' guild. Mud brick needs constant care: the yearly replastering brings out the whole town and is part of Djenné's living heritage.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655 (Koy Konboro)","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Villes anciennes de Djenné","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"The date of the first mosque","confiance":"C"}}],"local":"Jenne","type":"ville","existence":{"debut":-250,"fin":null,"periode":"site settled from the 3rd century BCE (Djenné-Djeno), present town since the 13th century","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"S. K. McIntosh et R. J. McIntosh, fouilles de Djenné-Djeno, 1977 et 1981","provenance":"academic (archaeology)","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Villes anciennes de Djenné (inscrites en 1988)","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":-250,"a":1200,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"Djenné-Djeno, a trading town long before the great empires.","confiance":"A"},{"de":1200,"a":1473,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A trading town of the inland delta, linked to Timbuktu by the river.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1473,"a":1591,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"A great market of the Songhay Empire, where gold from the south met salt from the north.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1591,"a":null,"etat":"declin","importance":2,"role":"A town under Moroccan rule.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-250,"titre":"First settlers at Djenné-Djeno","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1200,"titre":"The present town takes shape","confiance":"B"},{"annee":1473,"titre":"Taken by Sonni Ali","confiance":"C"},{"annee":1907,"titre":"The present mosque is built","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1988,"titre":"Inscribed as a World Heritage Site","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["sonni-ali"],"evenements":[],"parcours":[],"lieux":[{"id":"tombouctou","lien":"Canoes linked Djenné to Timbuktu along the Niger."}]},"a_venir":[{"titre":"The siege of Djenné","periode":"c. 1473","accroche":"According to the Timbuktu chronicles, Sonni Ali besieged Djenné for years before the town surrendered.","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Brill, 1999 (traduction annotée du Tarikh es-Soudan)","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]}],"a_verifier":"Date de la prise par Sonni Ali (1473 environ, discutée) et naissance de la ville actuelle (XIIIe siècle).","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"gao","nom":"Gao","lonlat":[-0.04,16.27],"photo":"askia","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"Capital of the Songhai Empire. Askia Muhammad lies here in a mud pyramid tomb built at the end of the 15th century.","sources":[{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Tombeau des Askia (inscrit en 2004)","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}],"histoires":[{"id":"askia","titre":"Askia Muhammad","periode":"1493 to 1528","photo":"askia","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"A general who seizes power in 1493, reorganises the empire into provinces and makes the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1496 and 1497.","texte":"Askia Muhammad relies on the Muslim scholars of Timbuktu, appoints governors over the provinces and pushes the empire's borders to their widest. Back from Mecca, he has his tomb built at Gao, a mud pyramid 17 metres high. His sons depose him in 1528.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan ; Tarikh el-Fettach","provenance":"African chronicles (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Tombeau des Askia","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"sonni-ali","titre":"Sonni Ali, the conqueror","periode":"1464 to 1492","confiance":"A","accroche":"He is the one who turns a kingdom into an empire: he takes Timbuktu in 1468 and Djenné a few years later. His portraits contradict each other.","texte":"The Timbuktu chronicles, written by scholars some of whom he had persecuted, paint Sonni Ali as a tyrant. Songhai oral tradition, on the contrary, makes him a hero with magical powers. Both are sources, and each speaks from its own side. The atlas shows both, so everyone can see where each portrait comes from.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Traditions orales songhaï (récits des sohantye)","provenance":"African oral tradition","famille":"orale"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"The portrait of Sonni Ali as a tyrant","confiance":"C"},"image_a_generer":"gao01-sonni-ali-armee","photo":"ia-gao01-sonni-ali-armee","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources"}],"type":"ville","existence":{"debut":872,"fin":null,"periode":"mentioned by Arab geographers from the 9th century","confiance":"A","sources":[{"ref":"N. Levtzion et J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, 1981","provenance":"academic (source translations)","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":872,"a":1300,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A royal capital on the river, known to Arab geographers.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1300,"a":1430,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A trading town under the authority of Mali.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1430,"a":1464,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"The capital of a Songhay kingdom independent once more.","confiance":"C"},{"de":1464,"a":1591,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The capital of the Songhay Empire, one of the largest in African history.","confiance":"A"},{"de":1591,"a":null,"etat":"declin","importance":1,"role":"A captured capital, passed over by the Moroccans in favour of Timbuktu.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":872,"titre":"First mention by an Arab geographer","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1353,"titre":"Ibn Battuta passes through Gao","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1464,"titre":"Sonni Ali comes to power","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1493,"titre":"Askia Muhammad takes power","confiance":"A","evenement":"askia-1493"},{"annee":1495,"titre":"Tomb of the Askias","confiance":"B","evenement":"tombeau-askia-1495"},{"annee":1591,"titre":"Taken by the Moroccan army","confiance":"A","evenement":"tondibi-1591"},{"annee":2004,"titre":"Tomb inscribed as a World Heritage Site","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["sonni-ali","askia-mohammed","ishaq-ii","ibn-battuta","mansa-musa"],"evenements":["askia-1493","tombeau-askia-1495","tondibi-1591"],"parcours":["pelerinage"],"lieux":[{"id":"tondibi","lien":"North of Gao, the battle of 1591 brought the empire to an end."},{"id":"tombouctou","lien":"The empire's second city, linked to Gao by the river."}]},"a_venir":[{"titre":"The royal stelae of Gao-Saney","periode":"12th century","accroche":"Tombstones inscribed in Arabic preserve the names of kings and queens of Gao, long before the Songhay Empire.","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"P. F. de Moraes Farias, Arabic Medieval Inscriptions from the Republic of Mali, British Academy, 2003","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]}],"a_verifier":"Première mention (al-Yaqubi, 872) et fin de l'autorité du Mali (vers 1430) à confirmer dans le Corpus et Gomez 2018.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"walata","nom":"Walata","lonlat":[-7.03,17.3],"photo":"walata","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"The southern gate of the Sahara, where the crossing ends. Ibn Battuta arrives in 1352 and finds a society that takes him by surprise.","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"}],"histoires":[{"id":"ibn-battuta","titre":"Ibn Battuta in Walata","periode":"1352","photo":"walata","type_image":"present-day photograph","confiance":"A","accroche":"The great Moroccan traveller is struck by the standing of women, their freedom, and an inheritance that passes through the sister rather than the son.","texte":"Ibn Battuta spends some fifty days in Walata before going on to the capital of Mali. He describes the Massufa, a Berber people of the town: children inherit from their mother's brother, and women receive visitors without anyone being shocked. His account says as much about him, a Moroccan jurist, as about the people of Walata: he judges what he sees by his own standards.","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"}]}],"type":"marche","existence":{"debut":1230,"fin":null,"periode":"flourishing by the 13th century","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen Âge, IFAN, 1961","provenance":"academic (IFAN, Dakar)","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Ksour anciens de Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt et Oualata (inscrits en 1996)","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":1230,"a":1480,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"The southern gateway of the Sahara, where the caravans' crossing ended.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1480,"a":null,"etat":"declin","importance":1,"role":"A town losing its caravans to Timbuktu.","confiance":"C"}],"jalons":[{"annee":1230,"titre":"The town rises","confiance":"C"},{"annee":1352,"titre":"Ibn Battuta reaches Walata","confiance":"A","evenement":"battuta-walata-1352"},{"annee":1996,"titre":"Inscribed as a World Heritage Site","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["ibn-battuta","mansa-musa","sonni-ali"],"evenements":["battuta-walata-1352"],"parcours":["pelerinage"],"lieux":[{"id":"taghaza","lien":"Caravans stopped at Taghaza before reaching Walata."},{"id":"tombouctou","lien":"Timbuktu eventually drew the caravans away from it."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"Date d'essor (XIIIe siècle) et début du déclin (attaques des années 1480) à confirmer dans Mauny 1961.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"taghaza","nom":"Taghaza","lonlat":[-5.01,23.62],"photo":"sel_taoudenni","type_image":"museum object (salt slab from Taoudenni)","confiance":"A","accroche":"A salt mine in the heart of the desert where, according to Ibn Battuta, the houses and the mosque were built of salt blocks.","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"}],"histoires":[{"id":"ville-sel","titre":"A town of salt","periode":"14th to 16th century","confiance":"A","accroche":"Not a tree, not a field: enslaved people dig the salt, and all the food is brought in. The salt itself heads south.","texte":"Ibn Battuta passes through Taghaza in 1352. He describes houses and a mosque with walls of salt and roofs of camel hide, brackish water, and miners who live only on what the caravans bring. The salt slabs are loaded onto camels and sold as far as Walata, Timbuktu and beyond.","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"}],"image_a_generer":"taghaza01-ville-de-sel"},{"id":"taoudeni","titre":"Salt moves to Taoudenni","periode":"around 1585","confiance":"B","accroche":"Fought over by Morocco and Songhai, Taghaza is abandoned at the end of the 16th century. Mining starts again further south, at Taoudenni.","texte":"The Taghaza mine becomes a prize contested by the sultan of Morocco and the Songhai Empire. After Moroccan raids in the 1580s, the miners leave for Taoudenni, where salt is still mined today in slabs much like those of the Middle Ages. This rivalry over salt is one of the preludes to the Moroccan expedition of 1591.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"photo":"sel_taoudenni","type_image":"museum object (salt slab from Taoudenni, musée du quai Branly)"}],"type":"mine","existence":{"debut":1300,"fin":1585,"periode":"worked from at least the 14th century, abandoned c. 1585","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen Âge, IFAN, 1961","provenance":"academic (IFAN, Dakar)","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":1300,"a":1585,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A salt mine in the open desert, where everything but salt came from elsewhere.","confiance":"B"},{"de":1585,"a":null,"etat":"ruine","importance":1,"role":"An abandoned mine; salt now came from Taoudenni.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":1352,"titre":"Ibn Battuta describes the salt town","confiance":"A"},{"annee":1585,"titre":"Salt moves to Taoudenni","confiance":"B","evenement":"taghaza-taoudeni-1585"}],"lies":{"personnes":["ibn-battuta","al-mansour"],"evenements":["taghaza-taoudeni-1585"],"parcours":[],"lieux":[{"id":"tombouctou","lien":"Taghaza salt travelled south to Timbuktu on camelback."},{"id":"walata","lien":"On the road to Walata, Taghaza was the great stop in the desert."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"Début de l'exploitation : peut-être mentionnée avant Ibn Battuta (al-Bakri, XIe siècle), à vérifier.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"tondibi","nom":"Tondibi","lonlat":[-0.12,16.67],"confiance":"A","debut":1591,"accroche":"In March 1591, Judar's Moroccan army, armed with arquebuses and cannon, defeats the army of Askia Ishaq II. The Songhai Empire collapses.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"histoires":[{"id":"armes-feu","titre":"Firearms against horsemen","periode":"1591","confiance":"A","accroche":"After a Sahara crossing that cost it part of its men, a small army with firearms defeats a far larger one.","texte":"Sultan al-Mansur sends a column of a few thousand men, many of them mercenaries and Andalusian renegades, under Judar's command. At Tondibi, north of Gao, the arquebuses and cannon panic the cavalry and the herds of cattle driven against them. Gao and Timbuktu fall in the months that follow. The exact size of both armies varies from source to source.","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"nuance":{"affirmation":"The size of the two armies","confiance":"C"},"image_a_generer":"tondibi01-bataille-1591","photo":"ia-tondibi01-bataille-1591","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources"}],"image_a_generer":"tondibi01-bataille-1591","type":"bataille","existence":{"debut":1591,"fin":1591,"periode":"March 1591","confiance":"A","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Brill, 1999 (traduction annotée du Tarikh es-Soudan)","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":1591,"a":1591,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The battlefield where the Songhay Empire was defeated.","confiance":"A"}],"jalons":[{"annee":1591,"titre":"Battle of Tondibi","confiance":"A","evenement":"tondibi-1591"}],"lies":{"personnes":["djouder","ishaq-ii","al-mansour"],"evenements":["tondibi-1591"],"parcours":[],"lieux":[{"id":"gao","lien":"The Songhay capital, taken by the Moroccan army after the battle."},{"id":"tombouctou","lien":"Occupied by the Moroccans a few weeks later."}]},"a_venir":[],"photo":"ia-tondibi01-bataille-1591","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"kerma","nom":"Kerma","local":"Kerma","lonlat":[30.41,19.6],"type":"ville","confiance":"A","accroche":"Kush's first capital, on the Nile above the Third Cataract: a thousand years of kingdom, with no writing but with giant temples.","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 503","famille":"archeologie"}],"existence":{"debut":-2450,"fin":null,"periode":"inhabited since about 2450 BC","confiance":"A","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-2450,"a":-1750,"etat":"naissance","importance":2,"role":"A town growing around its temple and its herders.","confiance":"B"},{"de":-1750,"a":-1480,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The capital of a kingdom that Egypt fears and calls Kush.","confiance":"A"},{"de":-1480,"a":-1450,"etat":"declin","importance":2,"role":"The kingdom fades under Egyptian occupation.","confiance":"B"},{"de":-1450,"a":null,"etat":"vivant","importance":1,"role":"Pnubs, a temple town, Egyptian and then Kushite again.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-1750,"titre":"The deffufa takes on the look of an Egyptian temple","confiance":"B"},{"annee":-1580,"titre":"A Hyksos king offers an alliance","confiance":"B","evenement":"alliance-hyksos-1580"},{"annee":-1504,"titre":"Thutmose I takes Kerma","confiance":"B","evenement":"conquete-kerma-1504"},{"annee":-593,"titre":"The kings' statues are smashed","confiance":"B","evenement":"psammetique-ii-593"},{"annee":2003,"titre":"The cache of statues is found","confiance":"A","evenement":"cache-doukki-gel-2003"}],"lies":{"personnes":["thoutmosis-i","taharqa","tanoutamon","aspelta","psammetique-ii"],"evenements":["alliance-hyksos-1580","conquete-kerma-1504","psammetique-ii-593","cache-doukki-gel-2003"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"kawa","lien":"Upstream on the Nile, Kawa is the land's other great sanctuary."},{"id":"gebel-barkal","lien":"After Kerma, the heart of the kingdom moves to Napata and Jebel Barkal."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"deffufa","titre":"The deffufa, a mudbrick temple","periode":"around 1750 to 1480 BC","confiance":"B","accroche":"At the heart of the town stands a mudbrick temple rebuilt over centuries. In Classic Kerma it looks like an Egyptian temple, and a port opens south of the town.","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 43","famille":"archeologie"}],"a_verifier":"date de la première construction : rapports de fouilles de C. Bonnet","mots_cles":{"1":["deffufa","Kerma"],"2":["Kerma classique"],"3":["temple","briques crues"]}},{"id":"cache","titre":"The cache of the seven kings","periode":"around 593 BC, found in 2003","confiance":"A","accroche":"In a pit at the Dukki Gel temple, next to Kerma, forty pieces of black granite: seven statues of Kushite kings, smashed and then carefully buried.","sources":[{"ref":"C. Bonnet et D. Valbelle, « Un dépôt de statues royales du début du VIe siècle av. J.-C. à Kerma », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2003","provenance":"archaeology (the Kerma excavators)","id":"bonnet-valbelle-2003-cachette","endroit":"p. 756 et 757","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « Doukki Gel », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-doukki-gel","endroit":"l. 45","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Doukki Gel","cache","statues"],"2":["Taharqa","Tanoutamon","Aspelta","Senkamanisken","Anlamani"],"3":["Charles Bonnet","granit noir"]}}],"a_venir":[],"mots_cles":{"1":["Kerma","Kouch"],"2":["deffufa","Doukki Gel","Thoutmôsis Ier","Taharqa"],"3":["Hyksôs","Psammétique II","Nil"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"kurgus","nom":"Kurgus","local":"Hagr el-Merwa","lonlat":[33.5,19.18],"type":"savoir","confiance":"B","accroche":"A rock beyond the Fourth Cataract where Thutmose I carved his name: the furthest south an Egyptian army ever reached.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 223 et 251","famille":"archeologie"}],"existence":{"debut":-1504,"fin":null,"periode":"inscription around 1504 BC","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 251","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-1504,"a":null,"etat":"vivant","importance":1,"role":"The carved marker of Egypt's advance.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-1504,"titre":"Thutmose I carves his inscription","confiance":"B","evenement":"conquete-kerma-1504"},{"annee":-1435,"titre":"Thutmose III adds his own","confiance":"B"}],"lies":{"personnes":["thoutmosis-i","thoutmosis-iii"],"evenements":["conquete-kerma-1504"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"gebel-barkal","lien":"Kurgus lies 250 km upstream of Jebel Barkal."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"coordonnées approchées, à confronter à une carte topographique ou aux publications de fouilles","mots_cles":{"1":["Kurgus","Hagr el-Merwa"],"2":["Thoutmôsis Ier","Thoutmôsis III"],"3":["Amon","quatrième cataracte"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"gebel-barkal","nom":"Jebel Barkal and Napata","local":"Djebel Barkal","lonlat":[31.83,18.54],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"A lone mountain on the Nile that Egyptians and Kushites alike held to be the home of Amun. At its foot lies Napata, city of the Black Pharaohs.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 35 et 141","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, « Gebel Barkal et les sites de la région napatéenne », bien 1073","provenance":"modern scholarship (international body)","id":"unesco-whc-1073","endroit":"l. 246","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-1450,"fin":null,"periode":"Napata founded in the 15th century BC","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 35","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-1450,"a":-1080,"etat":"naissance","importance":1,"role":"A fortified Egyptian outpost, Egypt's southern border.","confiance":"B"},{"de":-785,"a":-656,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The holy city of the kings of Kush, who also rule Egypt.","confiance":"A"},{"de":-656,"a":null,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"The kingdom's holy city, where kings go to be crowned.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-1435,"titre":"Stela of Thutmose III, year 47","confiance":"A","evenement":"stele-barkal-1435"},{"annee":-785,"titre":"Alara restores the cult of Amun","confiance":"C"},{"annee":-725,"titre":"Piye's victory stela","confiance":"A","evenement":"campagne-piye-725"},{"annee":-593,"titre":"The statues are smashed and the temple burned","confiance":"B","evenement":"psammetique-ii-593"},{"annee":2003,"titre":"World Heritage listing","confiance":"A"}],"lies":{"personnes":["thoutmosis-iii","alara","kashta","piye","aspelta"],"evenements":["stele-barkal-1435","campagne-piye-725","psammetique-ii-593"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"el-kurru","lien":"Napata's first kings are buried at El-Kurru, close by."},{"id":"nuri","lien":"Across the river, Nuri holds the pyramids of Taharqa and his successors."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"montagne-amon","titre":"The mountain of Amun","periode":"around 1435 BC","confiance":"A","accroche":"In the 47th year of his reign, Thutmose III set up a stela here marking Egypt's border. Its text makes the god of the mountain the life force of Amun of Karnak.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 149","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Gebel Barkal","Amon","Thoutmôsis III"],"2":["Karnak","stèle"],"3":["Napata"]}},{"id":"stele-piye","titre":"Piye's victory stela","periode":"year 21 of Piye, around 723 BC","confiance":"A","accroche":"A granite stela on which the Kushite king tells of his conquest of Egypt in his own words. At the top, the rulers of the Delta bow before him. Found in 1862, it is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.","sources":[{"ref":"Stèle de la victoire de Piye, an 21, Gebel Barkal (musée égyptien du Caire, JE 48862)","provenance":"African source (the Kushite king himself)","id":"attalus-stele-piye","endroit":"l. 39","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 797","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["stèle de Piye","Piye"],"2":["delta","musée égyptien du Caire"],"3":["1862"]}}],"a_venir":[{"titre":"Meroë, the southern capital","periode":"3rd century BC","accroche":"The kingdom of Kush lives on: its kings settle further south at Meroë and build hundreds of pyramids there.","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 991","famille":"archeologie"}]}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Gebel Barkal","Napata","Amon"],"2":["Thoutmôsis III","Piye","Alara"],"3":["Psammétique II","UNESCO","Méroé"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"el-kurru","nom":"El-Kurru","local":"Kurru","lonlat":[31.77,18.41],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"The burial ground of Napata's first kings, from Piye to Tantamani, with its painted tombs.","sources":[{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, « Gebel Barkal et les sites de la région napatéenne », bien 1073","provenance":"modern scholarship (international body)","id":"unesco-whc-1073","endroit":"l. 246 et 250","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 886","famille":"archeologie"}],"existence":{"debut":-900,"fin":null,"periode":"around 900 BC","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 665","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-900,"a":-653,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"The royal cemetery of the Napatan line.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-714,"titre":"Tomb of Piye","confiance":"B"}],"lies":{"personnes":["piye","shabaqo","tanoutamon"],"evenements":[],"parcours":[],"lieux":[{"id":"gebel-barkal","lien":"A few kilometres from Jebel Barkal."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"coordonnées approchées, à confronter à une carte topographique ou aux publications de fouilles ; début de la nécropole (vers 900 chez Kendall, à recouper)","mots_cles":{"1":["El-Kurru","Kurru"],"2":["Piye","Tanoutamon"],"3":["Napata","pyramide"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"nuri","nom":"Nuri","local":"Nuri","lonlat":[31.92,18.56],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"The pyramid field founded by Taharqa, across the river from Jebel Barkal. His is the largest in Kush, about 52 m a side.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 995","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 78","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-664,"fin":null,"periode":"founded around 664 BC","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 873","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-664,"a":-315,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"The burial ground of the kings and queens of Kush.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-664,"titre":"Pyramid of Taharqa","confiance":"A","evenement":"mort-taharqa-664"}],"lies":{"personnes":["taharqa","aspelta"],"evenements":["mort-taharqa-664"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"gebel-barkal","lien":"Nuri is 10 km upstream of Jebel Barkal, on the other bank."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"pyramide-taharqa","titre":"The pyramid of Taharqa","periode":"664 BC","confiance":"A","accroche":"Taharqa died in 664 and was brought back to Napata to be buried under the country's largest pyramid. Nearly twenty kings and more than fifty queens followed him to Nuri.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 873 et 995","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Nuri »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-nuri","endroit":"l. 35","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"mesures exactes : D. Dunham, Nuri, 1955 (à acquérir)","mots_cles":{"1":["pyramide de Taharqa","Nuri"],"2":["Taharqa"],"3":["reines","pyramide"]}}],"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"coordonnées approchées, à confronter à une carte topographique ou aux publications de fouilles","mots_cles":{"1":["Nuri","pyramide de Taharqa"],"2":["Taharqa","Napata"],"3":["Nastasen","pyramide"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"kawa","nom":"Kawa","local":"Gematon","lonlat":[30.53,19.12],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"A temple of Amun that Taharqa rebuilt on a grand scale, where his stelae tell of his crowning at Memphis.","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-1350,"fin":null,"periode":"Egyptian New Kingdom temple","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":-690,"a":-664,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"One of Taharqa's great building sites.","confiance":"A"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-690,"titre":"Taharqa crowned, according to the Kawa stelae","confiance":"A","evenement":"couronnement-taharqa-690"}],"lies":{"personnes":["taharqa"],"evenements":["couronnement-taharqa-690"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"kerma","lien":"Kawa lies upstream of Kerma, on the opposite bank."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"coordonnées approchées, à confronter à une carte topographique ou aux publications de fouilles ; fondation du temple (Amenhotep III ou Toutânkhamon) à vérifier dans une publication de fouilles","mots_cles":{"1":["Kawa","Gematon"],"2":["Taharqa","stèles de Kawa"],"3":["Amon","Memphis"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"thebes","nom":"Thebes","local":"Ouaset","lonlat":[32.66,25.72],"type":"ville","confiance":"A","accroche":"The city of Amun of Karnak, in Upper Egypt. The kings of Kush were received there as pharaohs, built there, and their daughters ran the cult of Amun.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 755 et 854","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"R. A. Caminos, « The Nitocris Adoption Stela », Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50, 1964","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"caminos-1964-nitocris","endroit":"l. 60","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-3200,"fin":null,"periode":"inhabited since about 3200 BC","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Thebes, Egypt »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-thebes-egypt","endroit":"l. 77","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":-760,"a":-656,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"A religious capital under Kushite rule.","confiance":"A"},{"de":-656,"a":null,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A city now in the hands of the pharaohs of Sais.","confiance":"A"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-1575,"titre":"Kush attacks Upper Egypt","confiance":"C","evenement":"attaque-kouch-1575"},{"annee":-725,"titre":"Piye celebrates the Opet festival","confiance":"A","evenement":"campagne-piye-725"},{"annee":-663,"titre":"The Assyrians sack Thebes","confiance":"B","evenement":"tanoutamon-663"},{"annee":-656,"titre":"Adoption of Nitocris","confiance":"A","evenement":"nitocris-656"}],"lies":{"personnes":["kashta","piye","taharqa","tanoutamon","psammetique-i"],"evenements":["campagne-piye-725","tanoutamon-663","nitocris-656"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"memphis","lien":"Thebes in the south, Memphis in the north: Egypt's two capitals."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"nitocris","titre":"The end of Kush in Egypt","periode":"656 BC","confiance":"A","accroche":"In the ninth year of his reign, Pharaoh Psamtik I sent a fleet to Thebes: the Kushite priestess of Amun had to adopt his daughter Nitocris. The city's monuments stopped counting the years of the kings of Kush.","sources":[{"ref":"Stèle de l'adoption de Nitocris, Karnak, an 9 de Psammétique Ier (Caire, JE 36327)","provenance":"African source (Egyptian)","id":"attalus-stele-adoption","endroit":"texte de la stèle","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"R. A. Caminos, « The Nitocris Adoption Stela », Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50, 1964","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"caminos-1964-nitocris","endroit":"l. 60","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 894 et 903","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Nitocris","656"],"2":["Psammétique Ier","Thèbes","Divine Adoratrice"],"3":["Amon"]}},{"id":"debat-peuplement","titre":"Were the ancient Egyptians black?","periode":"a debate since the 20th century","confiance":"D","accroche":"That the kings of Kush were black Africans who ruled Egypt is established. The colour of all Egyptians is a debate: at the 1974 UNESCO symposium in Cairo, Cheikh Anta Diop and Théophile Obenga argued for a black Egypt, others for a mixed population. The report records \"total disagreement\", but broad agreement that the Egyptian language cannot be separated from its African setting.","sources":[{"ref":"UNESCO, Le peuplement de l'Égypte ancienne et le déchiffrement de l'écriture méroïtique, actes du colloque du Caire de 1974, 1978","provenance":"modern scholarship (international symposium)","id":"unesco-1978-peuplement","endroit":"p. 93, 94 et 100","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 822","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Égyptiens noirs","colloque du Caire","peuplement de l'Égypte"],"2":["Cheikh Anta Diop","Théophile Obenga","UNESCO"],"3":["1974","langue égyptienne"]}}],"a_venir":[],"mots_cles":{"1":["Thèbes","Karnak","Louxor"],"2":["Piye","Nitocris","Psammétique Ier","Cheikh Anta Diop"],"3":["Amon","Assurbanipal","UNESCO"]},"a_verifier":"ancienneté de la ville : seulement Wikipédia, à recouper","region":"kouch"},{"id":"memphis","nom":"Memphis","local":"Mennefer","lonlat":[31.25,29.85],"type":"ville","confiance":"A","accroche":"The capital of northern Egypt, at the tip of the Delta. Piye stormed it, Taharqa was crowned there, and the Assyrians tore it from him.","sources":[{"ref":"Stèle de la victoire de Piye, an 21, Gebel Barkal (musée égyptien du Caire, JE 48862)","provenance":"African source (the Kushite king himself)","id":"attalus-stele-piye","endroit":"l. 39","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Chronique babylonienne ABC 1, colonne iv (traduction A. K. Grayson)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern chronicle (Babylon)","id":"livius-abc1-iv","endroit":"l. 122","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-3100,"fin":null,"periode":"founded around 3100 BC or earlier","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Memphis, Egypt »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-memphis-egypt","endroit":"l. 36","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":-725,"a":-671,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The residence of the Kushite kings in Egypt.","confiance":"A"},{"de":-671,"a":-656,"etat":"declin","importance":2,"role":"A city taken and retaken between Kush and Assyria.","confiance":"A"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-725,"titre":"Piye takes Memphis","confiance":"A","evenement":"campagne-piye-725"},{"annee":-690,"titre":"Taharqa is crowned there","confiance":"A","evenement":"couronnement-taharqa-690"},{"annee":-671,"titre":"Esarhaddon takes Memphis","confiance":"A","evenement":"memphis-671"},{"annee":-669,"titre":"Taharqa takes it back","confiance":"B"}],"lies":{"personnes":["piye","taharqa","assarhaddon","assurbanipal"],"evenements":["campagne-piye-725","couronnement-taharqa-690","memphis-671"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"thebes","lien":"Memphis in the north, Thebes in the south: Egypt's two capitals."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"chute-671","titre":"Memphis falls","periode":"671 BC","confiance":"A","accroche":"A Babylonian chronicle records it to the day: on the 22nd of the month of Du'uzu, after three battles, Memphis was taken and abandoned by its king. Taharqa's son and a brother were taken prisoner.","sources":[{"ref":"Chronique babylonienne ABC 1, colonne iv (traduction A. K. Grayson)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern chronicle (Babylon)","id":"livius-abc1-iv","endroit":"l. 122 et 124","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Stèle de victoire d'Assarhaddon, Zincirli, 671 av. J.-C., musée de Pergame, Berlin (lue à travers Wikipédia)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern royal inscription (Assyria), read second-hand","id":"wikipedia-en-victory-stele-of-esarhaddon","endroit":"l. 18","famille":"proche-orientale"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Memphis","671"],"2":["Assarhaddon","Taharqa"],"3":["chronique babylonienne"]}}],"a_venir":[],"mots_cles":{"1":["Memphis"],"2":["Piye","Taharqa","Assarhaddon"],"3":["Assyrie","delta"]},"a_verifier":"ancienneté de la ville : seulement Wikipédia, à recouper","region":"kouch"},{"id":"elkab","nom":"Elkab","local":"Nekheb","lonlat":[32.8,25.12],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"A town in Upper Egypt whose governor, Sobeknakht, describes in his tomb the attack of a great army from Kush.","sources":[{"ref":"Inscription de Sobeknakht II, tombe d'Elkab, publiée par W. V. Davies en 2003 (lue à travers Wikipédia, « Sobeknakht II »)","provenance":"African source (Egyptian), read second-hand","id":"wikipedia-en-sobeknakht-ii","endroit":"l. 34","famille":"africaine"}],"existence":{"debut":-3100,"fin":null,"periode":"inhabited since predynastic times","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « El Kab »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-el-kab","endroit":"l. 33","famille":"universitaire"}]},"etats":[{"de":-1600,"a":-1550,"etat":"vivant","importance":1,"role":"A frontier town facing Kush.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-1575,"titre":"Sobeknakht drives back the army of Kush","confiance":"C","evenement":"attaque-kouch-1575"}],"lies":{"personnes":["sobeknakht-ii"],"evenements":["attaque-kouch-1575"],"parcours":["pharaons-noirs"],"lieux":[{"id":"thebes","lien":"Elkab guards Thebes to the south."}]},"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"coordonnées approchées, à confronter à une carte topographique ou aux publications de fouilles ; article de Davies (2003) non lu ; ancienneté de la ville : seulement Wikipédia, à recouper","mots_cles":{"1":["Elkab","Nekheb"],"2":["Sobeknakht II","Kerma"],"3":["Hyksôs","Thèbes"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"yeha","nom":"Yeha","local":"Yeha","lonlat":[39.019,14.286],"type":"savoir","confiance":"A","accroche":"A great stone temple of the 7th century BC, standing for over two and a half thousand years, long before Aksum counted.","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 171 à 175","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Yeha »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-yeha","endroit":"l. 24","famille":"universitaire"}],"existence":{"debut":-700,"fin":null,"periode":"temple of the 7th century BC, still standing","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 171 à 175","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":-700,"a":null,"etat":"vivant","importance":2,"role":"A ritual centre of the highlands, with a great stone temple.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":-700,"titre":"A great temple is built","confiance":"B"}],"lies":{"personnes":[],"evenements":[],"parcours":["aksoum-mer-rouge"],"lieux":[{"id":"beta-samati","lien":"Beta Samati lies less than 10 km to the north-east."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"temple","titre":"The temple of Yeha","periode":"7th century BC","confiance":"B","accroche":"A great temple whose architecture, decoration and inscriptions show clear links with South Arabia; most scholars nevertheless see a largely local civilisation.","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 104 à 108","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 171 à 175","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["temple de Yeha"],"2":["Arabie du Sud","pré-aksoumite"],"3":["inscriptions"]}}],"a_venir":[],"a_verifier":"date du temple : fourchette radiocarbone publiée par les fouilleurs de Yeha (Robin et de Maigret 1998), non lue","mots_cles":{"1":["Yeha","temple de Yeha"],"2":["Tigré","pré-aksoumite"],"3":["Arabie du Sud"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"adulis","nom":"Adulis","local":"Adulis","lonlat":[39.6606,15.2636],"type":"port","confiance":"A","accroche":"The kingdom's port on the Red Sea: marble, wine and glass come in through it, ivory and gold go out.","sources":[{"ref":"Périple de la mer Érythrée (Ier siècle), traduction de W. H. Schoff, 1912","provenance":"European source (a Greek merchant of Egypt), in translation","id":"schoff-1912-periplus","endroit":"l. 65 à 74","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 72 à 90","famille":"archeologie"}],"existence":{"debut":60,"fin":600,"periode":"described in the 1st century, abandoned between the late 6th and early 7th century","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Périple de la mer Érythrée (Ier siècle), traduction de W. H. Schoff, 1912","provenance":"European source (a Greek merchant of Egypt), in translation","id":"schoff-1912-periplus","endroit":"l. 65 à 74","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 84 à 90","famille":"archeologie"}]},"etats":[{"de":60,"a":250,"etat":"naissance","importance":2,"role":"A port “established by law”, at the head of a bay, where ivory is loaded.","confiance":"B"},{"de":250,"a":600,"etat":"vivant","importance":3,"role":"The great port of the Kingdom of Aksum, linked to the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.","confiance":"B"},{"de":600,"a":null,"etat":"ruine","importance":1,"role":"Abandoned: its ultimate causes are unknown.","confiance":"B"}],"jalons":[{"annee":60,"titre":"The Periplus describes the port","confiance":"A"},{"annee":200,"titre":"The Chair of Adulis","confiance":"C","evenement":"chaise-adulis"},{"annee":520,"titre":"The king crosses the sea to Yemen","confiance":"B","evenement":"expedition-kaleb"},{"annee":600,"titre":"The port is abandoned","confiance":"B","evenement":"abandon-adulis"}],"lies":{"personnes":["zoscales","cosmas"],"evenements":["chaise-adulis","expedition-kaleb","abandon-adulis"],"parcours":["aksoum-mer-rouge"],"lieux":[{"id":"coloe","lien":"Three days' walk inland: the first ivory market."},{"id":"aksoum","lien":"Eight days' journey in all to the capital."}]},"histoires":[{"id":"chaise","titre":"The Chair of Adulis","periode":"between the 1st and 3rd century, copied about 518","confiance":"C","accroche":"A marble chair and a Greek inscription at the western entrance of the town: a king of Aksum lists his conquests there. It is known only from a merchant's copy, Cosmas's.","sources":[{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 66 à 74","famille":"europeenne"}],"a_verifier":"date : trois avis du XIXe siècle seulement ; Bowersock 2013 et Robin non lus","mots_cles":{"1":["chaise d'Adulis","Monumentum Adulitanum"],"2":["Cosmas Indicopleustès","Adulis"],"3":["inscription grecque"]}},{"id":"cathedrale","titre":"The church of Adulis","periode":"6th century","confiance":"B","accroche":"A large church decorated with marble imported from the Mediterranean, in a town of 40 hectares of which only 5% has been excavated.","sources":[{"ref":"« Africa's Merchant Kings », Archaeology Magazine, juillet-août 2023","provenance":"modern scholarship (popular history)","id":"archaeology-2023-aksoum","endroit":"l. 102 à 122","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["église d'Adulis","cathédrale"],"2":["Adulis","marbre"],"3":["fouilles"]}}],"a_venir":[{"titre":"The Persians on the coast","periode":"after 570","accroche":"A Persian naval blockade deprives the kings of Aksum of revenue: the end of the port draws near.","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 283 à 286","famille":"universitaire"}]}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Adulis","Zula"],"2":["mer Rouge","chaise d'Adulis","port"],"3":["Périple de la mer Érythrée"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"coloe","nom":"Koloe","local":"Koloe (Qohaito ?)","lonlat":[39.4239,14.8661],"type":"marche","confiance":"C","accroche":"The first ivory market on the road from the coast to Aksum, identified with Qohaito, on a plateau over 2,500 metres high.","sources":[{"ref":"Périple de la mer Érythrée (Ier siècle), traduction de W. H. 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M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 56 à 74","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"hauteur de la Grande Stèle : 33 m (Wikipédia) ou environ 100 pieds (Archaeology) ; quel roi l'a dressée : Ézana ou son prédécesseur Ousanas (Butts)","mots_cles":{"1":["stèles d'Aksoum","Grande Stèle"],"2":["tombes royales"],"3":["granit"]}},{"id":"obelisque","titre":"The obelisk, taken then returned","periode":"1937 to 2008","confiance":"A","accroche":"A 24-metre obelisk, carried off to Rome as war booty in 1937, brought back in three pieces in 2005, re-erected at Aksum in 2008.","sources":[{"ref":"« Ethiopia gets back first bit of obelisk », Al Jazeera, 19 avril 2005","provenance":"press","id":"aljazeera-2005-obelisque","endroit":"l. 44 à 68","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Obelisk of Axum »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-obelisk-of-axum","endroit":"l. 63","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["obélisque d'Aksoum"],"2":["Mussolini","Rome","UNESCO"],"3":["restitution"]}}],"a_venir":[{"titre":"Aksum and Meroe","periode":"4th century","accroche":"Ezana proclaims himself “king of the Ethiopians” after ending Meroe's autonomy: a file to open with Meroe.","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 181 à 186","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"titre":"The Kebra Nagast, the legend of the Ark","periode":"copied between 1314 and 1344","accroche":"An Ethiopian text tells that the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba brought the Ark of the Covenant to Aksum: a founding legend, not history.","confiance":"D","sources":[{"ref":"Kebra Nagast (copié entre 1314 et 1344), traduction de E. A. W. 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Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Brill, 1999 (traduction annotée du Tarikh es-Soudan)","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"alliance-hyksos-1580","type":"voyage","annee":-1580,"titre":"A Hyksos king offers Kerma an alliance","point":"kerma","confiance":"B","date":"around 1580 BC","issue":"Thebes finds itself caught between the Hyksos to the north and Kush to the south.","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 43","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Hyksôs","Kerma","1580"],"2":["Thèbes"],"3":[]},"a_verifier":"source primaire (lettre d'Apophis, stèle de Kamosis) à archiver","region":"kouch"},{"id":"attaque-kouch-1575","type":"bataille","annee":-1575,"titre":"The army of Kush attacks Upper Egypt","point":"elkab","confiance":"C","fin":-1550,"date":"around 1575 to 1550 BC","camps":[{"nom":"Kush and its allies","chef":null},{"nom":"Elkab","chef":"sobeknakht-ii"}],"issue":"The governor of Elkab says he drove it back; his account is the only source.","sources":[{"ref":"Inscription de Sobeknakht II, tombe d'Elkab, publiée par W. V. Davies en 2003 (lue à travers Wikipédia, « Sobeknakht II »)","provenance":"African source (Egyptian), read second-hand","id":"wikipedia-en-sobeknakht-ii","endroit":"l. 34","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Egyptian Invasion of Kerma »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-egyptian-invasion-of-kerma","endroit":"l. 29","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Kerma","Elkab","Sobeknakht II"],"2":["Thèbes","Pount","Medjay"],"3":[]},"a_verifier":"article de Davies 2003 non lu","region":"kouch"},{"id":"conquete-kerma-1504","type":"prise","annee":-1504,"titre":"Thutmose I conquers Kerma","point":"kerma","confiance":"B","date":"around 1504 BC","acteurs":["thoutmosis-i"],"trajet":"From Kerma, up the Nile, to Kurgus.","issue":"Egypt advances as far as Kurgus; the kingdom of Kerma dies out over the following decades.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 208 et 251","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Thutmose I »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-thutmose-i","endroit":"l. 50","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Thoutmôsis Ier","Kerma","1504"],"2":["Kurgus","Tombos"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"stele-barkal-1435","type":"fondation","annee":-1435,"titre":"Thutmose III sets the border at Jebel Barkal","point":"gebel-barkal","confiance":"A","date":"year 47 of Thutmose III, around 1443 to 1432 BC","acteurs":["thoutmosis-iii"],"issue":"Napata grows up at the foot of the mountain, Egypt's forward post and a sanctuary of Amun.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 35 et 149","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Thoutmôsis III","Gebel Barkal","Napata"],"2":["Amon"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"campagne-piye-725","type":"prise","annee":-725,"titre":"Piye conquers Egypt","point":"memphis","confiance":"A","date":"around 727 to 723 BC","acteurs":["piye"],"trajet":"From Napata, down the Nile, through Thebes and Hermopolis to Memphis.","issue":"The rulers of the Delta submit; Piye returns to Napata without deposing them.","sources":[{"ref":"Stèle de la victoire de Piye, an 21, Gebel Barkal (musée égyptien du Caire, JE 48862)","provenance":"African source (the Kushite king himself)","id":"attalus-stele-piye","endroit":"l. 39","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 797","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 814","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Piye","Memphis","stèle de Piye"],"2":["Thèbes","Hermopolis","Tefnakht"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"delta-712","type":"prise","annee":-712,"titre":"Shebitku conquers Lower Egypt","point":"memphis","confiance":"B","date":"712 BC","acteurs":["shabataqo"],"issue":"A single kingdom, from where the two Niles meet to the Mediterranean.","sources":[{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 625 à 642","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Shebitku »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-shebitku","endroit":"l. 28","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Shabataqo","712","delta"],"2":["Bocchoris","Sargon II"],"3":[]},"a_verifier":"ordre des règnes discuté (Kitchen)","region":"kouch"},{"id":"elteqeh-701","type":"bataille","annee":-701,"titre":"Kush and Egypt against Assyria in Judah","point":null,"confiance":"B","date":"701 BC","camps":[{"nom":"Kush and Egypt","chef":"taharqa"},{"nom":"Assyria","chef":null}],"issue":"The Kushite army faced Sennacherib's at Eltekeh; the Bible keeps the name of Tirhakah.","sources":[{"ref":"Bible hébraïque, 2 Rois 19,9 (traduction L. Segond, 1910)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern text (Judah)","id":"bible-segond-2-rois","endroit":"l. 1317","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Bible hébraïque, Ésaïe 37,9 (traduction L. Segond, 1910)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern text (Judah)","id":"bible-segond-esaie","endroit":"l. 1802","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 818","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 124","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Elteqeh","701","Tirhaqa"],"2":["Sennachérib","Juda","Taharqa"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"couronnement-taharqa-690","type":"prise_de_pouvoir","annee":-690,"titre":"Taharqa crowned at Memphis","point":"memphis","confiance":"A","date":"690 BC","acteurs":["taharqa"],"issue":"The best-known reign of the Black Pharaohs begins.","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 34 et 42","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 818","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Taharqa","690","Memphis"],"2":["Kawa","Shabaqo"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"defaite-assyrienne-673","type":"bataille","annee":-673,"titre":"The Assyrian army defeated in Egypt","point":"memphis","confiance":"A","date":"5th of the month of Addaru, year 7 of Esarhaddon (early 673 BC)","camps":[{"nom":"Kush and Egypt","chef":"taharqa"},{"nom":"Assyria","chef":"assarhaddon"}],"issue":"Esarhaddon falls back; he will return two years later.","sources":[{"ref":"Chronique babylonienne ABC 1, colonne iv (traduction A. K. Grayson)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern chronicle (Babylon)","id":"livius-abc1-iv","endroit":"l. 94","famille":"proche-orientale"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["673","Assarhaddon","Taharqa"],"2":["Assyrie"],"3":[]},"a_verifier":"lieu de la bataille non précisé par la chronique","region":"kouch"},{"id":"memphis-671","type":"prise","annee":-671,"titre":"Esarhaddon takes Memphis","point":"memphis","confiance":"A","date":"22nd of the month of Du'uzu, 671 BC","camps":[{"nom":"Assyria","chef":"assarhaddon"},{"nom":"Kush and Egypt","chef":"taharqa"}],"issue":"Taharqa, wounded, falls back south; his son and heir is taken to Assyria.","sources":[{"ref":"Chronique babylonienne ABC 1, colonne iv (traduction A. K. Grayson)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern chronicle (Babylon)","id":"livius-abc1-iv","endroit":"l. 122 et 124","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Stèle de victoire d'Assarhaddon, Zincirli, 671 av. J.-C., musée de Pergame, Berlin (lue à travers Wikipédia)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern royal inscription (Assyria), read second-hand","id":"wikipedia-en-victory-stele-of-esarhaddon","endroit":"l. 18","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 866","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Memphis","671","Assarhaddon"],"2":["Taharqa","Ushanahuru"],"3":["Zincirli"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"mort-taharqa-664","type":"fondation","annee":-664,"titre":"Taharqa buried at Nuri","point":"nuri","confiance":"B","date":"664 BC","acteurs":["taharqa"],"issue":"The largest pyramid in Kush opens a new royal cemetery.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 873 et 995","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Taharqa","Nuri","664"],"2":["pyramide"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"tanoutamon-663","type":"prise","annee":-663,"titre":"Tantamani retakes Egypt, then Thebes is sacked","point":"thebes","confiance":"B","date":"663 BC (the retreat lasts until 661)","acteurs":["tanoutamon","assurbanipal"],"issue":"Ashurbanipal returns; Tantamani withdraws to Kush and the Assyrians sack Thebes.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 886","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Tantamani »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-tantamani","endroit":"l. 42","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Tanoutamon","663","Thèbes"],"2":["Assurbanipal","Memphis"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"nitocris-656","type":"prise_de_pouvoir","annee":-656,"titre":"Nitocris adopted at Thebes","point":"thebes","confiance":"A","date":"year 9 of Psamtik I, 656 BC","acteurs":["psammetique-i"],"issue":"Kushite rule in Egypt comes to an end.","sources":[{"ref":"R. A. Caminos, « The Nitocris Adoption Stela », Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50, 1964","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"caminos-1964-nitocris","endroit":"l. 60","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Stèle de l'adoption de Nitocris, Karnak, an 9 de Psammétique Ier (Caire, JE 36327)","provenance":"African source (Egyptian)","id":"attalus-stele-adoption","endroit":"texte de la stèle","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 903","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Nitocris","656","Psammétique Ier"],"2":["Thèbes","Divine Adoratrice"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"psammetique-ii-593","type":"prise","annee":-593,"titre":"Psamtik II invades Kush","point":"kerma","confiance":"B","date":"around 593 BC","acteurs":["psammetique-ii","aspelta"],"issue":"The royal statues at Kerma and Napata are smashed; 4,200 prisoners according to the pharaoh's stela.","sources":[{"ref":"C. Bonnet et D. Valbelle, « Un dépôt de statues royales du début du VIe siècle av. J.-C. à Kerma », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2003","provenance":"archaeology (the Kerma excavators)","id":"bonnet-valbelle-2003-cachette","endroit":"p. 770 et 771","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 918 et 922","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"« Iscrizione dei mercenari greci ad Abu Simbel », Axon 2, 2018","provenance":"modern scholarship (on a Greek inscription)","id":"axon-2018-abou-simbel","endroit":"l. 28","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Psamtik II »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-psamtik-ii","endroit":"l. 22","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Psammétique II","593","Kerma"],"2":["Napata","Aspelta","Abou Simbel"],"3":["Carie","Grecs"]},"a_verifier":"593 (Bonnet, Axon) ou 592 (Wikipédia)","region":"kouch"},{"id":"cache-doukki-gel-2003","type":"decouverte","annee":2003,"titre":"The cache of statues found at Kerma","point":"kerma","confiance":"A","date":"11 January 2003","issue":"Seven black granite kings come out of the ground; they are now in the Kerma Museum.","sources":[{"ref":"C. Bonnet et D. Valbelle, « Un dépôt de statues royales du début du VIe siècle av. J.-C. à Kerma », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2003","provenance":"archaeology (the Kerma excavators)","id":"bonnet-valbelle-2003-cachette","endroit":"p. 756 et 757","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « Doukki Gel », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-doukki-gel","endroit":"l. 45","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Doukki Gel","2003","cache"],"2":["Taharqa","Tanoutamon","Aspelta","Charles Bonnet"],"3":["Senkamanisken","Anlamani"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"chaise-adulis","type":"fondation","annee":200,"titre":"A king of Aksum has his conquests carved on the Chair of Adulis","point":"adulis","confiance":"C","date":"between the 1st and 3rd century (date disputed)","issue":"Cosmas copies it about 518 and wrongly takes it for the continuation of an inscription of Ptolemy III.","sources":[{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 66 à 74","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 337","famille":"europeenne"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["chaise d'Adulis","Monumentum Adulitanum"],"2":["Adulis","Cosmas Indicopleustès"],"3":["inscription"]},"a_verifier":"date : avis de Dillmann, Saint-Martin et Glaser (XIXe siècle) seulement","region":"aksoum"},{"id":"monnaie-endubis","type":"fondation","annee":285,"titre":"Aksum strikes its first gold coin","point":"aksoum","confiance":"B","date":"about 270 to 300","issue":"The coin weighs half a Roman aureus: 2.7 g against 5.4 g.","sources":[{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 524 à 527","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 77 à 78","famille":"archeologie"}],"acteurs":["endubis"],"mots_cles":{"1":["monnaie d'Aksoum","Endubis"],"2":["pièce d'or","aureus"],"3":["Dioclétien"]},"a_verifier":"écart de quelques décennies entre Zazzaro (milieu du IIIe siècle) et Lusini (fin du IIIe)","region":"aksoum"},{"id":"lettre-constance-356","type":"voyage","annee":356,"titre":"Constantius writes to the kings of Aksum to demand Frumentius","point":"aksoum","confiance":"B","date":"356","issue":"The letter, quoted by Athanasius, is the earliest trace of Frumentius.","sources":[{"ref":"Athanase d'Alexandrie, Apologie à Constance (vers 357), § 31 : la lettre de Constance aux rois d'Aksoum","provenance":"European source (bishop of Alexandria), in translation","id":"athanase-apologie-constance","endroit":"l. 93","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 246 à 258","famille":"universitaire"}],"acteurs":["frumentius","ezana"],"mots_cles":{"1":["lettre de Constance","Frumentius"],"2":["Athanase","Ézana"],"3":["Sazana"]},"a_verifier":"authenticité de la lettre citée par Athanase : Butts écrit qu'elle serait « censée » de Constance","region":"aksoum"},{"id":"expedition-kaleb","type":"bataille","annee":520,"titre":"The king of Aksum crosses the Red Sea and defeats the king of Yemen","point":"zafar","confiance":"B","date":"about 518 to 525","issue":"Aksum places a vassal king at Zafar; one of its officers, Abraha, will later seize power.","sources":[{"ref":"Procope de Césarée, Histoire des guerres, livre I (vers 550), traduction de H. B. Dewing","provenance":"European source (a Byzantine historian), in translation","id":"procope-guerres-1-2","endroit":"l. 424","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 238 à 246","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Ibn Ishaq (mort vers 767), Sirat Rasul Allah, traduction de A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 1955","provenance":"Arab source (the Prophet's biographer), in translation","id":"guillaume-1955-ibn-ishaq","endroit":"l. 3073 à 3126","famille":"arabe"}],"camps":[{"nom":"Aksum","chef":"kaleb"},{"nom":"Himyar","chef":"dhu-nuwas"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["expédition de Kaleb","Yémen"],"2":["Dhu Nuwas","Himyar","Najran"],"3":["Procope"]},"a_verifier":"année : 518 (Lusini) ou 525 (tradition) ; Bowersock et Robin non lus","region":"aksoum"},{"id":"perses-zafar-575","type":"prise","annee":575,"titre":"The Persians take Zafar","point":"zafar","confiance":"B","date":"570 to 575","issue":"Yemen becomes a Persian province: Aksum loses its foothold in Arabia.","sources":[{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 247 à 250","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["conquête perse du Yémen"],"2":["Zafar","Sassanides"],"3":["Himyar"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"refuge-615","type":"voyage","annee":615,"titre":"Muslims from Mecca find refuge with the king of Aksum","point":"aksoum","confiance":"B","date":"615","issue":"The king refuses to hand them over to the envoys of the Quraysh.","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 136 à 138","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Ibn Ishaq (mort vers 767), Sirat Rasul Allah, traduction de A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 1955","provenance":"Arab source (the Prophet's biographer), in translation","id":"guillaume-1955-ibn-ishaq","endroit":"l. 10368 à 10395","famille":"arabe"}],"acteurs":["jafar"],"trajet":"from Mecca to the court of the king of Aksum","mots_cles":{"1":["émigration en Abyssinie","615"],"2":["La Mecque","Négus","Quraysh"],"3":["Armah"]},"a_verifier":"le nom du roi : Armah selon Harrower (« peut-être »), anonyme chez Ibn Ishaq","region":"aksoum"},{"id":"abandon-adulis","type":"abandon","annee":600,"titre":"Adulis is abandoned","point":"adulis","confiance":"B","date":"between the late 6th and early 7th century","issue":"The port fades out: its ultimate causes remain unknown.","sources":[{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 84 à 90","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 505","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["abandon d'Adulis"],"2":["Adulis","blocus perse"],"3":["islamisation"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"obelisque-pris-1937","type":"prise","annee":1937,"titre":"Italian troops carry off the Obelisk of Aksum","point":"aksoum","confiance":"A","date":"1937","issue":"A 1947 agreement provides for its return; it will happen only in 2005.","sources":[{"ref":"« Ethiopia gets back first bit of obelisk », Al Jazeera, 19 avril 2005","provenance":"press","id":"aljazeera-2005-obelisque","endroit":"l. 56 à 60","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["obélisque d'Aksoum"],"2":["Mussolini","Rome"],"3":["butin de guerre"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"obelisque-rendu-2005","type":"voyage","annee":2005,"titre":"The first piece of the obelisk comes home to Aksum","point":"aksoum","confiance":"A","date":"19 April 2005","issue":"The three pieces are re-erected under UNESCO's direction; the monument is unveiled on 4 September 2008.","sources":[{"ref":"« Ethiopia gets back first bit of obelisk », Al Jazeera, 19 avril 2005","provenance":"press","id":"aljazeera-2005-obelisque","endroit":"l. 44 à 68","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Obelisk of Axum »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-obelisk-of-axum","endroit":"l. 63","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["restitution de l'obélisque"],"2":["UNESCO","Aksoum"],"3":["2005"]},"region":"aksoum"}],"parcours":[{"id":"pelerinage","titre":"Mansa Musa's caravan","annee":1324,"confiance":"C","note":"The exact route of the pilgrimage is unknown: this line is one possible reconstruction, through Walata and Tuat.","etapes":[{"id":"depart","titre":"Leaving the capital","date":"1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[-8.38,11.38],"zoom":6.0,"pitch":50,"bearing":-10,"confiance":"A","flou":true,"decouvre":"niani","texte":"1324. Mansa Musa, king of Mali, sets out for Mecca. No one knows for sure where his capital stood: the golden haze marks the area most often suggested, around Niani. Above the king fly his colours, yellow on a red ground.","photo":"ia-mm01-depart-caravane-royale","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources","image_a_generer":"mm01-depart-caravane-royale","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"al-Umari, Masalik al-absar, vers 1340","provenance":"Arab chronicler (Cairo)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"D. C. Conrad, « A Town Called Dakajalan », Journal of African History, 1994","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"sahel","titre":"A vast retinue","date":"1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[-7.6,14.2],"zoom":5.7,"pitch":55,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","trajet":[[-8.38,11.38],[-8.0,12.6],[-7.6,14.2]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"Every trading town and every province paid its share for the journey. The king's retinue is huge, but nobody counted it: the figures you hear come from the chroniclers.","encart":{"affirmation":"The head of the caravan was already in Tumbutu (Timbuktu) while the king had not yet left his palace.","confiance":"D","sait":"Mahmud Kati records this tradition in the sixteenth century, two hundred years after the journey. Arab writers speak of 60,000 porters, a figure the historian Djibril Tamsir Niane calls \"probably exaggerated\". And Kati mentions Tumbutu, while our route runs through Walata: the road itself is still debated.","confiance_sait":"B"},"photo":"ia-mm02-caravane-sahel","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources","image_a_generer":"mm02-caravane-sahel","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"Mahmud Kati et ses continuateurs, Tarikh el-Fettach, XVIe et XVIIe siècles","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"}]},{"id":"walata","titre":"Walata, gateway to the desert","date":"1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[-7.03,17.3],"zoom":5.8,"pitch":55,"bearing":5,"confiance":"C","decouvre":"walata","trajet":[[-7.6,14.2],[-7.3,15.8],[-7.03,17.3]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"Walata, on the edge of the Sahara, is one of the great relays of trade between Mali and the north. Beyond it, no text describes the king's road precisely: the line becomes a hypothesis, widely dotted inside a blurred corridor.","photo":"walata","type_image":"present-day photograph","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"}]},{"id":"sahara","titre":"Crossing the Sahara","date":"1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[0.28,27.87],"zoom":4.4,"pitch":40,"bearing":15,"confiance":"C","trajet":[[-7.03,17.3],[-4.5,21.5],[-1.8,25.0],[0.28,27.87]],"trace":"suppose","couloir":true,"texte":"Weeks of walking, from well to oasis. Tuat, a crossroads of merchants, is one of the possible relays towards Egypt. The king came prepared: one of his predecessors, Sakura, had been killed on his way back from Mecca, and his general Saran Mandian had brought the desert nomads to heel.","photo":"ia-mm03-traversee-sahara","type_image":"AI-generated evocation based on the sources","image_a_generer":"mm03-traversee-sahara","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"}]},{"id":"caire","titre":"Cairo, July 1324","date":"July 1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[31.24,30.04],"zoom":5.4,"pitch":45,"bearing":0,"confiance":"A","trajet":[[0.28,27.87],[5.0,29.6],[9.5,30.1],[14.5,28.2],[20.0,29.2],[25.5,29.2],[29.5,30.0],[31.24,30.04]],"trace":"suppose","couloir":true,"texte":"On 19 July 1324 the caravan enters Cairo. Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad expects the king to prostrate himself before him. Mansa Musa refuses at first, then bows, saying he does so for God alone.","encart":{"affirmation":"He spent so much gold that he ruined Egypt, and he was the richest man who ever lived.","confiance":"D","sait":"Al-Umari reports that gold lost value in Cairo for at least twelve years. But the monetary historian Warren Schultz finds the drop within the usual swings of the time, and no source lets anyone put a figure on the king's fortune.","confiance_sait":"B"},"photo":"caire_nasir","type_image":"present-day photograph (al-Nasir Muhammad mosque, Cairo Citadel, 1318 to 1335)","image_a_generer":"mm05-arrivee-caire","histoire":["niani",1,0],"sources":[{"ref":"al-Umari, Masalik al-absar, vers 1340","provenance":"Arab chronicler (Cairo)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"N. Levtzion et J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, 1981","provenance":"academic (source translations)","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"M. A. Gomez, African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa, 2018","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"W. C. Schultz, « Mansa Musa's Gold in Mamluk Cairo: A Reappraisal of a World Civilizations Anecdote », 2006","provenance":"academic (monetary history)","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"mecque","titre":"Mecca, late 1324","date":"late 1324","annee":1324,"lonlat":[39.83,21.42],"zoom":5.0,"pitch":40,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","trajet":[[31.24,30.04],[32.55,29.97],[33.75,29.9],[35.0,29.53],[35.47,27.68],[36.47,26.23],[38.06,24.09],[39.03,22.8],[39.83,21.42]],"trace":"net","texte":"On 18 October the king leaves Cairo with Egypt's official pilgrim caravan. In Mecca he performs the pilgrimage and meets es-Saheli, an Andalusian poet and architect who will follow him back to Mali.","photo":"mecque_1889","type_image":"photograph from 1889 (Mecca, Bilder aus Mekka), shown as an evocation","sources":[{"ref":"H. Collet, « Échos d'Arabie. Le pèlerinage à La Mecque de Mansa Musa (724-725/1324-1325) d'après de nouvelles sources », History in Africa, 2019","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"N. Levtzion et J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, 1981","provenance":"academic (source translations)","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar, fin du XIVe siècle","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"}]},{"id":"retour","titre":"Home by way of Gao, 1325","date":"1325","annee":1325,"lonlat":[-0.04,16.27],"zoom":6.0,"pitch":55,"bearing":-10,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"gao","trace":"aucun","texte":"Short of gold, the king borrows from Cairo's merchants to get home. We don't really know which way he crossed the desert again, so the map draws nothing. We find him next in Gao, which accepts his rule according to the chronicles, and where he has a mosque built.","photo":"niger_gao","type_image":"photograph from 1997 (the Niger between Gao and Timbuktu)","sources":[{"ref":"M. A. Gomez, African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa, 2018","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Histoire générale de l'Afrique (UNESCO), vol. IV, chap. 6, 1984","provenance":"African (Guinean historian)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}]},{"id":"tumbutu","titre":"Tumbutu, the mosque of the return","date":"1325","annee":1325,"lonlat":[-3.0,16.77],"zoom":6.2,"pitch":55,"bearing":-15,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"tombouctou","trajet":[[-0.04,16.27],[-0.35,16.95],[-1.4,17.05],[-2.2,16.9],[-3.0,16.77]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"Tumbutu (Timbuktu) accepts the king's rule in turn. The city's chronicles credit him with the great mosque of Djingareyber, which still stands, rebuilt several times over.","photo":"djingareyber","type_image":"present-day photograph","histoire":["tombouctou",0,0],"sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, 1999","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"UNESCO, Centre du patrimoine mondial, Tombouctou","provenance":"international institution","famille":"universitaire"}]}],"periode":"1324 to 1325","accroche":"From his capital to Mecca and back: a year on the road. The desert route is a reconstruction, shown widely dotted inside a blurred corridor.","photo":"atlas_catalan","type_image":"original document (Catalan Atlas, 1375)","final":{"titre":"The gold king of the Catalan Atlas","texte":"Fifty years later, in Majorca, a mapmaker draws the king of Mali on his throne, a nugget of gold in his hand. His journey had travelled all round the Mediterranean.","photo":"atlas_catalan","type_image":"original document (Catalan Atlas, 1375)","confiance":"A","histoire":["niani",1,1],"sources":[{"ref":"Atlas catalan, 1375, Bibliothèque nationale de France","provenance":"European document (Majorca)","famille":"europeenne"}]},"region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"pharaons-noirs","titre":"Kush and the Black Pharaohs","annee":-1750,"confiance":"B","pion":"point","periode":"around 1750 to 593 BC","note":"Dates follow the usual low chronology for the Egyptian New Kingdom, and F. Payraudeau's (2014) for the Kushite kings. Different chronologies differ by a few years.","accroche":"A thousand years on the Nile: an African kingdom that makes Egypt tremble, falls under its rule, then rules all of it.","etapes":[{"id":"kerma","titre":"Kerma, capital of Kush","date":"around 1750 to 1480 BC","annee":-1650,"lonlat":[30.41,19.6],"zoom":6.2,"pitch":50,"bearing":0,"confiance":"A","decouvre":"kerma","texte":"Around 1750 BC, on the Nile above the Third Cataract, Kerma is the capital of a kingdom the Egyptians call Kush. Its people do not write, but they build big: at the heart of the town rises the deffufa, a mudbrick temple rebuilt over centuries.","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 42 et 43","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Kerma","Kouch"],"2":["deffufa"],"3":[]}},{"id":"alliance","titre":"The alliance and the attack on Thebes","date":"around 1580 to 1550 BC","annee":-1575,"lonlat":[32.8,25.12],"zoom":5.4,"pitch":40,"bearing":0,"confiance":"C","mecanique":"temps","texte":"Around 1580, a Hyksos king who rules northern Egypt offers the king of Kerma an alliance. Thebes is caught in between. In his tomb at Elkab, the governor Sobeknakht tells how a great army from Kush and its allies attacked southern Egypt, and how he drove it back. That is his account: Kerma's side of the story is lost.","sources":[{"ref":"Mission archéologique suisse au Soudan, « The kingdom of Kerma », kerma.ch","provenance":"archaeology (Swiss mission at Kerma)","id":"kerma-ch-royaume","endroit":"l. 43","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Inscription de Sobeknakht II, tombe d'Elkab, publiée par W. V. Davies en 2003 (lue à travers Wikipédia, « Sobeknakht II »)","provenance":"African source (Egyptian), read second-hand","id":"wikipedia-en-sobeknakht-ii","endroit":"l. 34","famille":"africaine"}],"a_verifier":"dates de l'attaque en C tant que l'article de Davies n'est pas lu","mots_cles":{"1":["Hyksôs","Sobeknakht II","Elkab"],"2":["Kerma","Thèbes"],"3":[]}},{"id":"thoutmosis","titre":"Thutmose I conquers Kerma","date":"around 1504 BC","annee":-1504,"lonlat":[33.5,19.18],"zoom":5.6,"pitch":50,"bearing":20,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"kurgus","mecanique":"suivre","trajet":[[30.41,19.6],[30.48,19.17],[30.75,18.22],[31.0,18.05],[31.55,18.12],[31.83,18.54],[32.6,18.9],[33.32,19.53],[33.5,19.18]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"Around 1504, a reunited Egypt strikes back. Pharaoh Thutmose I takes Kerma, then sails far up the Nile: he has his name carved on a rock at Kurgus, 250 km upstream of Jebel Barkal. The kingdom of Kerma fades away over the following decades.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 208 et 251","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Thutmose I »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-thutmose-i","endroit":"l. 50","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Thoutmôsis Ier","Kurgus"],"2":["Kerma"],"3":[]}},{"id":"barkal","titre":"The mountain of Amun","date":"year 47 of Thutmose III, around 1443 to 1432 BC","annee":-1435,"lonlat":[31.83,18.54],"zoom":7.0,"pitch":60,"bearing":-20,"confiance":"A","decouvre":"gebel-barkal","texte":"In the 47th year of his reign, Thutmose III sets up a stela at the foot of Jebel Barkal, a lone mountain on the Nile, and fixes Egypt's southern border there. To the Egyptians it is the home of the god Amun. At its foot, Napata is born.","sources":[{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 35 et 149","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Gebel Barkal","Thoutmôsis III","Napata"],"2":["Amon"],"3":[]}},{"id":"piye","titre":"Piye sails down the Nile","date":"around 727 to 723 BC","annee":-725,"lonlat":[31.25,29.85],"zoom":5.0,"pitch":45,"bearing":0,"confiance":"A","mecanique":"suivre","trajet":[[31.83,18.54],[31.55,18.12],[30.75,18.22],[30.48,19.17],[30.41,19.6],[30.5,20.7],[31.35,21.8],[32.9,24.09],[32.66,25.72],[30.8,27.78],[31.25,29.85]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"Seven centuries later, the kings of Napata have taken back the land and the cult of Amun. King Piye learns that the princes of northern Egypt are joining forces against him. He sails down the Nile: Thebes, Hermopolis, Memphis. The rulers of the Delta come to bow before him. He tells the story himself on a great granite stela.","sources":[{"ref":"Stèle de la victoire de Piye, an 21, Gebel Barkal (musée égyptien du Caire, JE 48862)","provenance":"African source (the Kushite king himself)","id":"attalus-stele-piye","endroit":"l. 39","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 797","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 814","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Piye","stèle de Piye","Memphis"],"2":["Thèbes","Hermopolis"],"3":[]}},{"id":"shabataqo","titre":"Shebitku, king of the whole Nile","date":"712 BC","annee":-712,"lonlat":[31.25,29.85],"zoom":4.6,"pitch":30,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","mecanique":"temps","texte":"In 712, the Assyrian annals stop calling the pharaoh \"king of Egypt\" and start calling him \"king of Kush\". That year the Kushite king Shebitku conquers Lower Egypt. From where the two Niles meet to the Mediterranean, one single kingdom: the largest the Nile valley ever knew in ancient times.","encart":{"affirmation":"It was Shabaka who conquered Egypt, before Shebitku.","confiance":"C","sait":"That is the order long taught. But an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon II, dated 706, shows that Shebitku was already on the throne. Most Egyptologists today (Payraudeau, Kendall, Dodson) place Shebitku before Shabaka, who reigned from 705 to 690. K. Kitchen still defends the old order.","confiance_sait":"B"},"sources":[{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 253, 625 à 642","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 805","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Shebitku »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-shebitku","endroit":"l. 28","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Shabataqo","Shebitku","712"],"2":["Shabaqo","Sargon II"],"3":[]}},{"id":"taharqa","titre":"Taharqa builds","date":"690 to 664 BC","annee":-685,"lonlat":[30.53,19.12],"zoom":6.6,"pitch":55,"bearing":10,"confiance":"A","decouvre":"kawa","texte":"In 690, Taharqa is crowned at Memphis. The best known of the Black Pharaohs builds throughout his kingdom: at Karnak, at Sanam, at Jebel Barkal, and at Kawa, where his stelae tell the story of his reign.","sources":[{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 34 et 42","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 117","famille":"archeologie"}],"a_verifier":"liste des chantiers à recouper avec une source savante (Török, Pope)","mots_cles":{"1":["Taharqa","Kawa"],"2":["Karnak","Sanam","Gebel Barkal"],"3":[]}},{"id":"tirhaqa","titre":"The Tirhakah of the Bible","date":"701 BC","annee":-701,"lonlat":[34.85,31.85],"zoom":5.8,"pitch":40,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","texte":"In 701, the Assyrian king Sennacherib invades the kingdom of Judah. An army from Kush and Egypt marches north to stop him and fights at Eltekeh. The Bible names its leader.","encart":{"affirmation":"In 701, Taharqa, king of Kush, marches against the Assyrians.","confiance":"C","sait":"The Bible speaks of \"Tirhakah king of Ethiopia\", meaning Kush. But Taharqa only became king in 690. In 701 he was probably 25 to 33 years old and led the army for the king: the title was given to him after the fact. The battle itself is well attested.","confiance_sait":"B"},"sources":[{"ref":"Bible hébraïque, 2 Rois 19,9 (traduction L. Segond, 1910)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern text (Judah)","id":"bible-segond-2-rois","endroit":"l. 1317","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Bible hébraïque, Ésaïe 37,9 (traduction L. Segond, 1910)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern text (Judah)","id":"bible-segond-esaie","endroit":"l. 1802","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Taharqa »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-taharqa","endroit":"l. 124","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 818","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"âge de Taharqa en 701 : J. Pope 2014, lu à travers Wikipédia","mots_cles":{"1":["Tirhaqa","Tirhaka","701"],"2":["Sennachérib","Juda","Elteqeh"],"3":["Bible"]}},{"id":"nuri","titre":"Memphis falls, the pyramid at Nuri","date":"671 to 664 BC","annee":-671,"lonlat":[31.92,18.56],"zoom":6.8,"pitch":60,"bearing":-10,"confiance":"A","decouvre":"nuri","trajet":[[31.25,29.85],[30.8,27.78],[32.66,25.72],[32.9,24.09],[31.35,21.8],[30.5,20.7],[30.41,19.6],[30.48,19.17],[30.75,18.22],[31.55,18.12],[31.83,18.54],[31.92,18.56]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"In 673, Taharqa beats back a first Assyrian invasion. But in 671 King Esarhaddon returns: after three battles he takes Memphis. Taharqa, wounded, falls back south; his son and heir is led away into captivity. He retakes Memphis in 669 and loses it in 667. When he dies in 664, he is buried at Nuri, under the largest pyramid in Kush.","sources":[{"ref":"Chronique babylonienne ABC 1, colonne iv (traduction A. K. Grayson)","provenance":"ancient Near Eastern chronicle (Babylon)","id":"livius-abc1-iv","endroit":"l. 94, 122 et 124","famille":"proche-orientale"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 866 à 873 et 995","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"J. Lendering, « Taharqo », Livius","provenance":"modern scholarship (popular history)","id":"livius-taharqo","endroit":"l. 61","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Memphis","Nuri","Assarhaddon"],"2":["Taharqa","671","664"],"3":["Assurbanipal"]}},{"id":"statues","titre":"The broken statues","date":"around 593 BC, found on 11 January 2003","annee":-593,"lonlat":[30.41,19.6],"zoom":7.2,"pitch":55,"bearing":0,"confiance":"A","mecanique":"reconstituer","texte":"Around 593, Pharaoh Psamtik II sends an army into Kush, with Greek and Carian mercenaries in its ranks. It reaches Kerma and Napata. The statues of the Kushite kings are broken at the neck and legs, then carefully buried in a pit in the temple. On 11 January 2003, archaeologists of the Swiss mission find the back of a statue of Taharqa there: seven black granite kings come out of the ground.","photo":"taharqa_kerma","type_image":"present-day photograph (statue of Taharqa, Kerma Museum)","sources":[{"ref":"C. Bonnet et D. Valbelle, « Un dépôt de statues royales du début du VIe siècle av. J.-C. à Kerma », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2003","provenance":"archaeology (the Kerma excavators)","id":"bonnet-valbelle-2003-cachette","endroit":"p. 756, 757, 770 et 771","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 918","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"« Iscrizione dei mercenari greci ad Abu Simbel », Axon 2, 2018","provenance":"modern scholarship (on a Greek inscription)","id":"axon-2018-abou-simbel","endroit":"l. 28","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Doukki Gel","Psammétique II","statues"],"2":["Taharqa","Aspelta","Kerma"],"3":["Charles Bonnet","mercenaires grecs"]}}],"final":{"titre":"The statue of Taharqa","lieu":"Kerma Museum, Sudan","texte":"The largest of the seven statues in the cache: 2.70 m of black granite, smashed around 593, buried, found in 2003 and pieced back together. It stands in the Kerma Museum.","photo":"taharqa_kerma","type_image":"present-day photograph (statue of Taharqa, Kerma Museum)","confiance":"A","histoire":["kerma",1,null],"sources":[{"ref":"C. Bonnet et D. Valbelle, « Un dépôt de statues royales du début du VIe siècle av. J.-C. à Kerma », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2003","provenance":"archaeology (the Kerma excavators)","id":"bonnet-valbelle-2003-cachette","endroit":"p. 757","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Kerma Museum »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-kerma-museum","endroit":"l. 34","famille":"universitaire"}]},"mots_cles":{"1":["pharaons noirs","Kouch","XXVe dynastie"],"2":["Kerma","Napata","Taharqa","Piye"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"aksoum-mer-rouge","titre":"Aksum, the kingdom of the Red Sea","annee":-650,"confiance":"B","pion":"point","periode":"7th century BC to 7th century, then 1937 to 2008","note":"The kings' dates vary by decades between authors: they are given as “about”. Almost all we know of Ezana's conversion and of the expedition to Yemen comes from outside sources, Greek, Latin and Arabic; Aksum's own sources, inscriptions and coins, are short and read here second-hand.","accroche":"An African kingdom whose wealth comes from the sea: it strikes gold, raises giant stelae, becomes Christian, crosses the Red Sea, then fades when the sea routes slip away.","etapes":[{"id":"yeha","titre":"Yeha, the temple from before Aksum","date":"7th century BC","annee":-650,"lonlat":[39.019,14.286],"zoom":9.0,"pitch":55,"bearing":10,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"yeha","photo":"yeha_ruines","type_image":"present-day photograph (the temple of Yeha)","texte":"In the 7th century BC, several centuries before Aksum counts for anything, a great stone temple is built at Yeha, on the highlands of Tigray. Its architecture, decoration and inscriptions show clear links with South Arabia, across the Red Sea. Most scholars nevertheless see a largely local civilisation: both readings exist, and this is not told as a colony.","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 104 à 108","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 171 à 175","famille":"archeologie"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Yeha","temple"],"2":["Arabie du Sud","pré-aksoumite"],"3":["Tigré"]}},{"id":"adulis","titre":"Adulis, the port “established by law”","date":"1st century","annee":60,"lonlat":[39.2,14.7],"zoom":7.4,"pitch":50,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"adulis","mecanique":"suivre","trajet":[[39.6606,15.2636],[39.4239,14.8661],[38.7278,14.1208]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"In the 1st century, a Greek merchant from Egypt describes the Red Sea coast in a sailing guide. Adulis, he writes, is a port “established by law”, at the head of a bay. From there, three days' walk leads to Koloe, the first ivory market, then five more days to the city of the Aksumites, where ivory from beyond the Nile is gathered. Follow the road: eight days from the sea to the capital.","sources":[{"ref":"Périple de la mer Érythrée (Ier siècle), traduction de W. H. Schoff, 1912","provenance":"European source (a Greek merchant of Egypt), in translation","id":"schoff-1912-periplus","endroit":"l. 65 à 74","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Qohaito »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-qohaito","endroit":"l. 34","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"tracé de la route : simple ligne droite entre trois points ; l'identification de Koloe à Qohaito reste à confirmer","mots_cles":{"1":["Adulis","Périple de la mer Érythrée"],"2":["Coloe","ivoire"],"3":["route d'Adulis à Aksoum"]}},{"id":"zoscales","titre":"Zoscales, the king who reads Greek","date":"1st century","annee":60,"lonlat":[39.3,14.9],"zoom":6.8,"pitch":45,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","mecanique":"vraiDiscute","encart":{"affirmation":"Zoscales is the first king of Aksum.","confiance":"C","sait":"The Greek guide says only that he governs the coastal and inland regions of Adulis. One scholar, G. Huntingford (1974), finds it needless and misleading to identify him with a king of Aksum, and compares him to the “sea-kings” who governed the north-east.","confiance_sait":"B"},"texte":"The same guide names the man who rules these lands: Zoscales, miserly and always striving for more, but upright, and acquainted with Greek literature. Already, on the highlands, a man of power reads the language of the Mediterranean. But who was he, really?","sources":[{"ref":"Périple de la mer Érythrée (Ier siècle), traduction de W. H. Schoff, 1912","provenance":"European source (a Greek merchant of Egypt), in translation","id":"schoff-1912-periplus","endroit":"l. 83 à 86","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"G. W. B. Huntingford, « Three notes on early Ethiopian geography », Folia Orientalia 15, 1974","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"huntingford-1974-inscription-trilingue","endroit":"l. 65 à 71","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["Zoscalès","Zoscales"],"2":["Périple de la mer Érythrée"],"3":["langue grecque"]}},{"id":"chaise","titre":"The Chair of Adulis","date":"between the 1st and 3rd century, copied about 518","annee":200,"lonlat":[39.6606,15.2636],"zoom":9.2,"pitch":55,"bearing":20,"confiance":"C","mecanique":"temps","texte":"At the western entrance of Adulis, on the road to Aksum, stands a marble chair. A king of Aksum, whose name is lost, has his conquests carved on it in Greek: peoples beyond the Nile, the Semien mountains, and on the opposite shore, Arabia. We know it only from the copy of a merchant, Cosmas, about 518, who takes it for the continuation of an inscription of the Egyptian king Ptolemy III. When was it carved? The old authorities disagree: place the date on the timeline.","sources":[{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 66 à 74","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 337","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 238 à 241","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"dates avancées au XIXe siècle : début de notre ère (Dillmann), fin du IIe siècle (Saint-Martin), fin du IIIe (Glaser)","mots_cles":{"1":["chaise d'Adulis","Monumentum Adulitanum"],"2":["Cosmas Indicopleustès","Adulis"],"3":["inscription grecque"]}},{"id":"endubis","titre":"Endubis's coin","date":"late 3rd century","annee":285,"lonlat":[38.7278,14.1208],"zoom":9.4,"pitch":50,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"aksoum","photo":"piece_disque","type_image":"authentic document (gold coin of Ezana, about 300 to 340, British Museum)","texte":"Towards the end of the 3rd century, a king named Endubis has the kingdom's first gold coin struck at Aksum. It weighs half a Roman aureus, 2.7 grams against 5.4, since Diocletian's reform of 296. Aksum joins the circle of kingdoms that strike coins. Minting will not stop until the first half of the 7th century.","sources":[{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 524 à 531","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"C. Zazzaro, L. Cocca, A. Manzo, « Towards a Chronology of the Eritrean Red Sea Port of Adulis », Journal of African Archaeology 12, 2014","provenance":"archaeology (the Adulis excavators)","id":"zazzaro-2014-adulis-chronologie","endroit":"l. 77 à 78","famille":"archeologie"}],"a_verifier":"la pièce illustrée est d'Ézana, non d'Endubis : la photo montre le type de monnaie, pas celle du texte","mots_cles":{"1":["Endubis","monnaie d'Aksoum"],"2":["pièce d'or","aureus"],"3":["Dioclétien"]}},{"id":"steles","titre":"The stelae of Aksum","date":"3rd and 4th centuries","annee":320,"lonlat":[38.73,14.13],"zoom":11.2,"pitch":60,"bearing":25,"confiance":"B","photo":"grande_stele","type_image":"present-day photograph (the fallen Great Stele, Aksum)","texte":"In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the kings of Aksum and the great raise stone stelae above their tombs. There are hundreds. The largest, carved like a thirteen-storey building with its doors and windows, stood about thirty metres tall and weighed over 570 tons. It lies today fallen and broken into several pieces.","sources":[{"ref":"« Africa's Merchant Kings », Archaeology Magazine, juillet-août 2023","provenance":"modern scholarship (popular history)","id":"archaeology-2023-aksoum","endroit":"l. 38 à 48","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Obelisk of Axum »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-obelisk-of-axum","endroit":"l. 50","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"hauteur : 33 m (Wikipédia) ou environ 100 pieds, soit 30 m (Archaeology)","mots_cles":{"1":["stèles d'Aksoum","Grande Stèle"],"2":["tombes royales"],"3":["granit"]}},{"id":"frumentius","titre":"Frumentius, the boy who became a bishop","date":"4th century","annee":340,"lonlat":[34.0,24.0],"zoom":4.6,"pitch":30,"bearing":0,"confiance":"C","mecanique":"suivre","trajet":[[35.196,33.271],[39.6606,15.2636],[38.7278,14.1208],[29.8925,31.1975],[38.7278,14.1208]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"This is how tradition tells the arrival of Christianity. A philosopher from Tyre travels towards “India” with two boys, Frumentius and Edesius. At the port, locals kill the travellers but spare the boys, who are given to the king. Frumentius wins the court's trust, then goes to Alexandria: Athanasius ordains him bishop there. Yet the story comes from afar: a Latin historian, Rufinus, writes it in the early 5th century, at least half a century after the events. The earliest solid trace is a letter of the emperor Constantius, in 356, demanding the bishop Frumentius from Aksum.","sources":[{"ref":"Socrate le Scolastique, Histoire ecclésiastique, livre I (vers 440), chapitre 19","provenance":"European source (a church historian), in translation","id":"socrate-histoire-ecclesiastique-1","endroit":"l. 116","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"Athanase d'Alexandrie, Apologie à Constance (vers 357), § 31 : la lettre de Constance aux rois d'Aksoum","provenance":"European source (bishop of Alexandria), in translation","id":"athanase-apologie-constance","endroit":"l. 93","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 246 à 258","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 295 à 297","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Tyre, Lebanon »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-tyre-lebanon","endroit":"l. 28","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Alexandria »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-alexandria","endroit":"l. 37","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"itinéraire : lignes droites entre Tyr, Adulis, Aksoum, Alexandrie ; le port du naufrage n'est pas nommé par les sources, Adulis est une hypothèse","mots_cles":{"1":["Frumentius","Abba Salama"],"2":["Rufin","Athanase","Édésios"],"3":["christianisation d'Aksoum"]}},{"id":"ezana","titre":"Ezana and the cross","date":"mid 4th century","annee":345,"lonlat":[38.8,14.25],"zoom":9.8,"pitch":50,"bearing":15,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"beta-samati","mecanique":"vraiDiscute","photo":"piece_croix","type_image":"authentic document (gold coin of Ezana with the cross, British Museum)","encart":{"affirmation":"Ezana moved from paganism to Christianity in three clear steps: disc and crescent, then nothing, then the cross.","confiance":"C","sait":"That is the classic story. But his Greek version is trinitarian while his Ge'ez versions speak of a “Lord of Heaven”, and his coins need not fall in that order. A. Butts (2025) sees instead a king adjusting his message to each audience, much as Constantine did in Rome.","confiance_sait":"B"},"texte":"King Ezana leaves two kinds of traces. On his gold coins, sometimes the disc and crescent, sometimes the cross. On stones, a Greek inscription that opens with faith “in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit”, and Ge'ez inscriptions that invoke rather a “Lord of Heaven”. The coin with the cross, pictured, is in the British Museum; it is held to be the later one, but scholars do not agree on the order.","sources":[{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 149 à 153","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 195 à 202","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"A. M. Butts, « Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King », Aethiopica 28, 2025","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"butts-2025-ezana","endroit":"l. 180 à 183","famille":"universitaire"}],"a_verifier":"l'ordre des pièces et la date des deux monnaies du British Museum (« 300-340 » et « 340-400 ») suivent le récit classique que Butts conteste","mots_cles":{"1":["Ézana","Ezana","conversion"],"2":["monnaie à la croix","Seigneur du ciel"],"3":["inscriptions d'Ézana"]}},{"id":"kaleb","titre":"Kaleb crosses the sea","date":"about 518 to 525","annee":520,"lonlat":[42.0,14.7],"zoom":5.6,"pitch":40,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"zafar","mecanique":"suivre","trajet":[[39.6606,15.2636],[44.4086,14.2114]],"trace":"suppose","texte":"About 518 to 525, King Kaleb of Aksum crosses the Red Sea against Yemen. Three voices, three biases. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, tells of a Christian king intervening for Christians oppressed by Homerites, often Jews, defeating their king and setting up another who will pay tribute. Cosmas, a merchant of Alexandria, is at Adulis at the time. Ibn Ishaq, an Arab biographer writing more than two centuries later, tells of the massacre of the Christians of Najran by King Dhu Nuwas, a survivor's appeal, then the Negus's army of 70,000 Abyssinians. No Aksumite source is read here.","sources":[{"ref":"Procope de Césarée, Histoire des guerres, livre I (vers 550), traduction de H. B. Dewing","provenance":"European source (a Byzantine historian), in translation","id":"procope-guerres-1-2","endroit":"l. 424","famille":"europeenne"},{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 238 à 246","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Ibn Ishaq (mort vers 767), Sirat Rasul Allah, traduction de A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 1955","provenance":"Arab source (the Prophet's biographer), in translation","id":"guillaume-1955-ibn-ishaq","endroit":"l. 3073 à 3126","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"Cosmas Indicopleustès, Topographie chrétienne, livre II (vers 550), traduction de J. W. McCrindle, 1897","provenance":"European source (a merchant of Alexandria), in translation","id":"mccrindle-1897-cosmas-livre-2","endroit":"l. 66","famille":"europeenne"}],"a_verifier":"trajet par mer : ligne droite d'Adulis à Zafar, non sourcée ; année 518 ou 525","mots_cles":{"1":["Kaleb","Ella Asbeha"],"2":["Yémen","Himyar","Dhu Nuwas"],"3":["Najran","Procope"]}},{"id":"refuge","titre":"615: the king who refuses to hand over the refugees","date":"615","annee":615,"lonlat":[39.6,18.0],"zoom":4.8,"pitch":35,"bearing":0,"confiance":"B","decouvre":"la-mecque","mecanique":"temps","texte":"In 615, Muslims persecuted in Mecca seek refuge in Abyssinia. According to Ibn Ishaq, the Meccans send two men to demand their return. Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib reads the king a passage from the sura of Mary; the king weeps and refuses to hand them over. The king's name is not read in this account: Harrower thinks of Armah, of whom bronze coins survive. In the same century the sea routes close: the Persians take Zafar about 575, Adulis is abandoned about 600.","sources":[{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 136 à 141","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"M. J. Harrower et al., « Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town », Antiquity 93, 2019","provenance":"archaeology (the Beta Samati excavators)","id":"harrower-2019-beta-samati","endroit":"l. 344 à 349","famille":"archeologie"},{"ref":"Ibn Ishaq (mort vers 767), Sirat Rasul Allah, traduction de A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 1955","provenance":"Arab source (the Prophet's biographer), in translation","id":"guillaume-1955-ibn-ishaq","endroit":"l. 10368 à 10395","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"G. Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 247 à 250","famille":"universitaire"}],"mots_cles":{"1":["615","émigration en Abyssinie"],"2":["Armah","Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib"],"3":["Négus","Quraysh"]}}],"final":{"titre":"The Obelisk of Aksum","lieu":"Aksum, Ethiopia","texte":"Twenty-four metres of stone, between 150 and 160 tons, raised in the 4th century. Carried off to Rome as war booty in 1937, it came home in 2005 in three pieces and has stood again at Aksum since 4 September 2008.","photo":"obelisque_aksoum","type_image":"present-day photograph (the re-erected Obelisk of Aksum)","confiance":"A","histoire":["aksoum",1,null],"sources":[{"ref":"« Ethiopia gets back first bit of obelisk », Al Jazeera, 19 avril 2005","provenance":"press","id":"aljazeera-2005-obelisque","endroit":"l. 44 à 68","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"« Ethiopia starts re-erecting ancient obelisk », Mail & Guardian, 24 octobre 2007","provenance":"press","id":"mg-2007-obelisque","endroit":"l. 32 à 42","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Obelisk of Axum »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-obelisk-of-axum","endroit":"l. 45","famille":"universitaire"}]},"mots_cles":{"1":["Aksoum","Aksum"],"2":["Adulis","Ézana","Kaleb"],"3":["mer Rouge","Yémen"]},"region":"aksoum"}],"personnes":[{"id":"soundiata","nom":"Sundiata Keita","role":"Founder of the Mali Empire, who defeated Sumanguru Kante at Kirina.","de":1235,"a":1255,"periode":"reigned c. 1235 to c. 1255","confiance":"C","sources":[{"ref":"D. T. Niane, Soundjata ou l'épopée mandingue, 1960 (d'après le griot Mamadou Kouyaté)","provenance":"African oral tradition","famille":"orale"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar, fin du XIVe siècle","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"}],"lieux":["niani"],"a_verifier":"Dates de règne reconstituées d'après Ibn Khaldoun et la tradition, à confronter à Niane 1984 et Gomez 2018.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"mansa-musa","nom":"Mansa Musa","role":"King of Mali, famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 and 1325.","de":1312,"a":1337,"periode":"reigned c. 1312 to c. 1337","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"al-Umari, Masalik al-absar, vers 1340","provenance":"Arab chronicler (Cairo)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar, fin du XIVe siècle","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"H. Collet, « Échos d'Arabie. Le pèlerinage à La Mecque de Mansa Musa (724-725/1324-1325) d'après de nouvelles sources », History in Africa, 2019","provenance":"academic","famille":"universitaire"}],"lieux":["niani","walata","gao","tombouctou"],"a_verifier":"Les dates de règne varient selon les auteurs (1307 ou 1312 au début, 1332 ou 1337 à la fin).","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"es-saheli","nom":"Abu Ishaq al-Sahili","role":"Andalusian poet and architect met in Mecca, who came back to Mali with Mansa Musa.","de":null,"a":1346,"periode":"died 1346","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Khaldoun, Kitab al-Ibar, fin du XIVe siècle","provenance":"Arab historian (Tunis)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"}],"lieux":["tombouctou"],"a_verifier":"Année et lieu de sa mort (1346, Tombouctou) repris de mémoire.","region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"ibn-battuta","nom":"Ibn Battuta","role":"Moroccan traveller who crossed the Sahara and stayed in Mali in 1352 and 1353.","de":1304,"a":1369,"periode":"1304 to c. 1369","confiance":"A","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Battuta, Rihla, 1355","provenance":"Arab traveller (Maghreb)","famille":"arabe"},{"ref":"N. Levtzion et J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, 1981","provenance":"academic (source translations)","famille":"universitaire"}],"lieux":["taghaza","walata","niani","tombouctou","gao"],"region":"boucle-du-niger"},{"id":"sonni-ali","nom":"Sonni Ali","role":"Songhay king who turned a kingdom into an empire; he took Timbuktu in 1468.","de":1464,"a":1492,"periode":"reigned 1464 to 1492","confiance":"A","sources":[{"ref":"es-Saadi, Tarikh es-Soudan, vers 1655","provenance":"African chronicle (Timbuktu)","famille":"africaine"},{"ref":"John O. 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Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 818","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"Wikipédia (anglais), « Kashta »","provenance":"encyclopedia (cross-check)","id":"wikipedia-en-kashta","endroit":"l. 14","famille":"universitaire"}],"lieux":["gebel-barkal","thebes"],"mots_cles":{"1":["Kashta"],"2":["Thèbes","Éléphantine"],"3":[]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"piye","nom":"Piye","role":"King of Kush who subdued all of Egypt and told of his victory on a stela.","de":-744,"a":-714,"periode":"reigned 744 to 714 BC (or 747 to 716)","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"F. Payraudeau, « Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo », Nehet 1, 2014","provenance":"modern scholarship (Egyptologist, Sorbonne)","id":"payraudeau-2014-shabaqo-shabataqo","endroit":"l. 818","famille":"universitaire"},{"ref":"T. Kendall, « Jebel Barkal and Ancient Napata: An Historical Overview », Jebel Barkal Archaeological Project","provenance":"modern scholarship (archaeologist of Jebel Barkal)","id":"kendall-barkal-napata","endroit":"l. 797","famille":"archeologie"}],"lieux":["gebel-barkal","el-kurru","thebes","memphis"],"mots_cles":{"1":["Piye","Piânkhy","Piankhy"],"2":["Memphis","Hermopolis","Napata"],"3":["Tefnakht"]},"region":"kouch"},{"id":"shabataqo","nom":"Shebitku","role":"King of Kush who conquered Lower Egypt in 712.","de":-714,"a":-705,"periode":"reigned 714 to 705 BC (Payraudeau)","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"F. 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Lusini, « The decline and collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE) », in The End of Empires, Springer, 2022","provenance":"modern scholarship","id":"lusini-2022-declin-aksoum","endroit":"l. 238 à 241","famille":"universitaire"}],"lieux":["adulis"],"mots_cles":{"1":["Cosmas Indicopleustès"],"2":["Topographie chrétienne","chaise d'Adulis"],"3":["Adulis"]},"region":"aksoum"},{"id":"jafar","nom":"Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib","role":"Spokesman of the refugees before the king of Aksum, according to Ibn Ishaq.","de":615,"a":615,"periode":"615","confiance":"B","sources":[{"ref":"Ibn Ishaq (mort vers 767), Sirat Rasul Allah, traduction de A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 1955","provenance":"Arab source (the Prophet's biographer), in translation","id":"guillaume-1955-ibn-ishaq","endroit":"l. 10368 à 10395","famille":"arabe"}],"lieux":["la-mecque","aksoum"],"mots_cles":{"1":["Jaʿfar ibn Abi Talib","Ja'far"],"2":["Négus","615"],"3":["Quraysh"]},"region":"aksoum"}]}